
Class _ILhS 

Book 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



A SHORT HISTORY OF 
ENGLAND 



*&&& 




Statue of King Alfred unveiled at Winchester on the 
Thousandth Anniversary of his Death 



A SHORT 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 

FOR SCHOOL USE 



BY 

KATHARINE COMAN, Ph.B. 

PROFESSOR OF ECONOMICS IN WELLESLEY COLLEGE 
AND 

ELIZABETH KENDALL, M.A. 

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN WELLESLEY COLLEGE 



WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 
1907 

All rights reserved 



v- 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 

Two OodIcs Received 

SEP 26 I90r 

Copvrtcht Entry 

CLASS /t- XXc M No, 
COPY B. 



Copyright, 1901, 1907, 
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped November, 1901. Reprinted April, 
1902; January, 1904; January, 1905; September, 1906; New 
edition, revised, September, 1907. 



PREFACE 

The aim of this little book is to tell in a simple, direct 
form the story of England. Early Britain, the transformation 
of Britain into England, the union of the Saxon kingdoms 
into one state, the development of the United Kingdom, its 
expansion into the British Empire, — these successive 
stages in English history are traced. The simpler aspects 
of constitutional development are explained and the life of 
the people in its homely detail has not been neglected. 

Effort has been made to render the book attractive to 
young people by laying stress on the personal element in 
history, hence details and anecdotes have been inserted 
which would be out of place in so small a book if intended 
for older students. No story has been told, however, 
merely because it was interesting, but because it illustrated 
as well some important characteristic of historical times or 
personages. Few dates have been given, but it is hoped 
that the student may nevertheless gain a true impression 
of the order of events in English history. 

In selecting the illustrations care has been taken to use 
so far as possible those that are pictorial rather than archi- 
tectural. Many are contemporary with the events depicted, 
but the lack of these has been met in some cases by re- 
producing historical paintings by modern artists of emi- 



ii Preface 

nence. The attempt has been made to show development 
through the illustrations ; for example, the dwelling houses 
of different periods are reproduced. In the margins are 
placed references to imaginative literature dealing with his- 
torical events, — poems, dramas, and tales. In these are 
included not merely works of permanent value, but also 
those of a lighter and more ephemeral character. 

At the end of each chapter are given the titles of a few 
books which the teacher may find of special use, together 
with some suggestive questions and special topics. The 
following authorities will be found valuable throughout the 
course: Green's Short History of England (Harpers), Ken- 
dall's Source Book of English History (Macmillan), Bates 
and Coman's English History, as told by the English poets 
(Macmillan), Montague's Elements of English Constitutional 
History (Longmans, Green). 

Acknowledgments are due to many friends for helpful 
suggestions, and especially to the teachers and students 
of English history in the Grammar School of Wellesley. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Introduction xiii 

CHAPTER I 
The Beginnings of Britain I 

CHAPTER II 
The Struggle with the Danes 14 

CHAPTER III 
Foreign Kings 36 

CHAPTER IV 
The Shaping of the Nation 68 

CHAPTER V 
The Charter and the Nation 85 

CHAPTER VI 
The French Wars 106 

CHAPTER VII 
The National Awakening 126 

CHAPTER VIII 

The Wars of the Roses 148 

iii 



iv Contents 

CHAPTER IX 

PAGE 

The New Order in State and Church . . . .179 

CHAPTER X 
The Reign of a Great Queen 222 

CHAPTER XI 
The Rule of the Stuarts 250 

CHAPTER XII 
Restoration and Revolution . 29} 

CHAPTER XIII 
The Contest for Empire .321 

CHAPTER XIV 
The Rule of George the Third ...... 359 

CHAPTER XV 
The Great War with France ...... 373 

CHAPTER XVI 
The Triumph of Democracy ....... 4°3 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Statue of King Alfred unveiled at Winchester on the Thousandth 

Anniversary of his Death Frontispiece 

PAGE 

Flint Dagger xviii 

Montelius, The Civilization of Sweden in Heathen Times. 
Stone Etching .......... xviii 

Reindeer of the Cave of Thayngen. 
Plan of a Part of a British Village showing Ditches, Ramparts, 

and Clusters of Huts ........ xix 

Windle, Early Man in Britain. By permission of David 
Nutt. 
Stone Axe with Shaft Hole xx 

Joly, Man before Metals. 
Ancient British Canoe xxi 

Found at North Stoke, Sussex. 
Bronze Weapons, found in Bath ....... xxi 

Evans, Ancient Stone Implements. 
British Coracle xxii 

Craik and McFarlane, Pictorial History of England. 

Gaulish Huts, from the Antonine Column xxiii 

A Triple-ramparted British Camp on One of the Malvern Hills, 

known as the Herefordshire Beacon ..... xxv 

Craik and McFarlane, Pictorial History of England. 

Stonehenge. From a photograph xxvi 

View of the Roman Wall. From a photograph .... 3 
Fourteen-oared Boat, found at Nydam, South Jutland ... 7 

Montelius, The Civilization of Sweden in Heathen Times. 
Iron Axe 9 

Montelius, The Civilization of Sweden in Heathen Times. 
Upper Part of a Two-edged Iron Sword II 

Montelius, The Civilization of Sweden in Heathen Times. 
Primitive Loom, from the Faroe Islands II 

Montelius, The Civilization of Sweden in Heathen Times. 
Residence of a Saxon Nobleman. From the Harleian Ms. . 12 

The Viking Ship as restored for the Columbian Celebration. . 15 

v 



vi Illustration 

PAGE 

Danish Armor 17 

De Worsaae, The Primceval Antiquities of Denmark. 
Saxon Ships 26 

After an engraving in Strutt's Chronicles of England. 
The Witenagemote 29 

From the Cotton Ms., Claudius, Book IV. 
Alfred's Jewel. In the Sheldonian Museum, Oxford ... 32 
Edward the Confessor. From the Bayeux Tapestry ... 42 

Harold. From the Bayeux Tapestry 43 

William's Fleet crossing the Channel. From the Bayeux Tapestry 46 
Battle of Hastings. From the Bayeux Tapestry .... 48 
Keep Tower, Rochester Castle 50 

From a woodcut in Craik and McFarlane, Pictorial History 
of England. 
Norman Soldiers. Grose, Military Antiquities .... 52 
The Oath of Homage to Duke William 55 

Craik and McFarlane, Pictorial History of England. 
Tickhill Castle. From the Vetusta Monumenta .... 58 
The Jew's House, Lincoln 60 

Craik and McFarlane, Pictorial History of England. 
Knight of the Time of Henry II. Grose, Military Antiquities . 72 
The Murder of Becket 75 

After an engraving from the ancient painting in Canterbury 
Cathedral. 
Penance of Henry II. After an ancient painting on glass . . 76 
A Crusader 79 

Craik and McFarlane, Pictorial History of England. 
Castle of Falaise 82 

Craik and McFarlane, Pictorial History of England. 
Specimen of the Great Charter. British Museum ... 88 
Henry III 91 

From the monument in Westminster Abbey. ( Vet. A/on.) 
Westminster Abbey. From a photograph ..... 92 
Cornation of Edward I 96 

Illuminated letter from an early Ms. 
Coronation Chair of the Kings of England 101 

Kept in Westminster Abbey. 

Stirling Castle. Skelton 103 

House of the Fourteenth Century at Lincoln .... 107 

From a woodcut in Craik and McFarlane's Pictorial History 
of England. 



Illustrations vii 



114 
116 
119 
122 
124 
127 
128 
131 



i35 
137 
139 



PAGE 

Field of Bannockburn from Gillie's Hill m 

Edward III. From the Tomb in Westminster Abbey 

A Genoese Crossbowman 

Battering Ram. Grose, Military Antiquities 

Effigy of the Black Prince 

Wyclif. From the portrait at Knole . 

War Vessels of Richard II. Royal Ms. Plut. XH. 294 

Spinning with a Wheel. Ms. Roy. 10 E. IV 

The Savoy Palace from the River Thames . 

From a drawing published by the Antiquary Society in 1730 
( Vet. Mon., II, PI. 5.) 
Adam and Eve. Cotton Ms. Nero C. 4 
Tower of London ...... 

Richard II 

From the painting by an unknown artist in Westminster 
Abbey. 
Plowing. From the Luttrell Psalter. ( Vet. Mon.) . . . 142 
Harrowing. From the Luttrell Psalter. ( Vet. Mon.) . . 142 
Sowing. From the Luttrell Psalter. ( Vet. Mon.) . . . 142 
Parliament assembled for the Deposition of Richard II . . 146 

Harleian Ms. 131 9. 
Coronation of Henry IV. Harleian Ms. 4379 .... 150 
Henry V. as a Boy 153 

After a woodcut from an illumination in a copy of Bonaven- 
tura's Golden Book. Library of Christ Church College, 
Oxford. 

Jousting. Vetusta Monumenta 154 

Trial of Joan of Arc. From a painting by Fred Roe . . .156 
Marriage of Henry VI 158 

After an engraving in Walpole's works, from picture formerly 
in his possession. 
Roasting on a Spit. From the Luttrell Psalter. {Vet. Mon.) . 160 
Joust between " Richard, Earl of Warwick and a mighty Duke 

before the Emperor Sigismund " 163 

From a Ms. in the British Museum (Julius E. IV). 
War Vessels of Henry IV. Harleian Ms. 4379 .... 164 
Siege Towers and Cannon. Royal Ms. 14 E. 4 . . . .169 

Henry VI 171 

Earl Rivers presenting Caxton to Edward IV . . .174 

Ms. Lambeth Palace. 



viii Illustrations 

PAGE 

The Princes in the Tower. From a painting by Sir John Millais . 1 75 
Richard III. After a painting, artist unknown, in Windsor Castle 176 
Illustrations from a Tournament. Vet. Mon., I, PI. XX . .184 
A Suit of Armor given by Maximilian to Henry VIII. Now in 

the Tower of London 186 

Embarkation of Henry VIII at Dover 187 

After the original at Windsor. 
The Field of the Cloth of Gold 188 

From the original painting in Hampton Court Palace. 

Old St. Paul's School. From an old print 192 

Sir Thomas More. From an engraving of the portrait by Holbein 193 
Anne Boleyn 197 

From a portrait at Windsor by an unknown artist. It hung 

in Elizabeth's bedchamber during her life. 

Henry VIII. From Holbein's sketch in the Pinakotheke, Munich 199 

Fountains Abbey. Lefroy, ftuined Abbeys of Yorkshire . . 201 

Edward VI 208 

From a portrait in the Louvre, Paris, by Antonio Moro. 
A House of the Time of Edward VI ..... 209 

From an old print in Smith's Topography of London. 
London from Westminster Abbey to Grey Friars .... 2IO 

From a print in the Bodleian Library. 
London from the Palace of Bridewell to London Bridge . .211 

From a print in the Bodleian Library. 
London from London Bridge to Tower of London, 1543 . . 212 

From a print in the Bodleian Library. 
London from the Tower to Greenwich, 1543 .... 213 

From a print in the Bodleian Library. 
Mary Tudor 217 

From a painting in Prado at Madrid, ascribed to Antonio 
Moro. 
Queen Elizabeth as Wisdom. From a painting by Zucchero . 223 
Mary Stuart 230 

From a painting by an unknown artist of the School of 
Clouet, at the Hermitage, St. Petersburg. 
Yeoman of the Guard. Grose, Military Antiquities . . . 238 
The Spanish Armada attacked by the English Fleet . . . 239 

From a woodcut after the ancient tapestry in the former 
House of Lords. 
Elizabeth's England (Creighton) ....... 241 



Illustrations ix 

PAGE 

The State Carriage of Queen Elizabeth 242 

From Hoefnagel's Print of Nonsuch Palace. 

Elizabeth on a Progress. From a print by Vertue . . . 243 

The Globe Theatre 248 

James I at Eight Years 251 

From the painting in the National Portrait Gallery by 
Zucchero. 

The Coronation of James I 252 

From an engraving of a Dutch print, 1603. 

The Guy Fawkes Vault. From an old drawing .... 255 

Musketeer, Time of James I. Grose, Military Antiquities . . 258 

Officer of Pikemen. Grose, Military Antiquities . . . 259 

Charles I. From a painting by Van Dyck 263 

"The Sovereign of the Seas " (Skelton) 271 

Strafford on the Way to the Block 277 

From a painting by Paul Delaroche. 

Trial of Charles I. After Nalson 286 

The Seal of the Commonwealth 291 

Cromwell. From portrait ascribed to Lely ..... 293 

Puritans destroying the Cross at Cheapside 294 

From an engraving of a print in the Pennant Collection, 
British Museum. 

Three Children of Charles I (Van Dyck) 300 

The Fire in London. From a print by Visscher .... 302 

The Dutch Fleet in the Medway. The Burning of Sheerness . 304 

Glencoe. From an old print 324 

Hampton Court Palace. From a Dutch print .... 328 

Marlborough. From an engraving of the portrait by Kneller . 330 

Blenheim Palace 332 

The Rock of Gibraltar. From a photograph .... 333 

John Wesley 343 

The Young Pretender 348 

George III 361 

The Minute Man. From a photograph of the statue by French . 366 

Lord Nelson's Ship Victory at Trafalgar ..... 383 

A Spinning Mule 391 

Stephenson's Engine 392 

From Smiles's Life of Stephenson. 

A Stage Coach 393 

Coronation of Victoria. After the painting by Winterhalter . 4°5 



x Illustrations 

PAGE 

Houses of Parliament from Lambeth Palace .... 408 

Gladstone. From a photograph 415 

House of Commons in Session 418 

Queen Victoria and Prince Edward of York. From a photograph 

By permission of Messrs. Hughes and Mullins . . face 423 
Edward VII face 434 



LIST OF MAPS 

/ 

Physiography of the British Isles xiv-xv 

Land Surface of the Globe xv 

The Discovery of Britain xxvii 

Roman Britain 4-5 

English Settlements . . . 8-9 

Egbert's Kingdom 10-11 

Alfred's England 26-27 

Empire of Canute 40-41 

England and Normandy (1065) 46-47 

Dominions of the House of Anjou 68-69 

Wales in the Reign of Edward I 100-101 

Scotland in the Reign of Edward I 102-103 

English Possessions in France (1360) . . . . - . 1 20-1 21 

Map of London in 1381 129 

England under Richard II 134-135 

France in 1429 154-155 

The Wars of the Roses 164-165 

The World at the Accession of Henry VII 190 

Western Europe in the Reign of Elizabeth .... 224-225 
The Spanish Empire in the Reign of Philip II . 232-233 

Ireland in the Sixteenth Century 246-247 

England and Wales in the Seventeenth Century . . . 282-283 

England and Wales (1660-18 1 5) 306-307 

The United Netherlands and the Spanish Netherlands . 326-327 

India. The English Conquest 351 

North America in 1750 354—355 

Central and Western Europe (181 5) 384-385 

Dominions of the Turk 410 

The British Empire , 422-423 



BOOKS FOR REFERENCE 

Arch, J. Autobiography. London. Hutchinson. 

Archer and Kingsford. The Story of the Crusades. N. Y. Putnams. 

Barnes, J. Drake and his Yeomen. N. Y. Macmillans. 

Besant, W. Captain Cook. N. Y. Macmillans. 

Blades, R. H. Caxton. London. Hardwicke. 

Bowker. Alfred the Great. London. Black. 

Cheyney, E. P. Industrial and Social History of England. N. Y. 

Macmillans. 
Church, A. J. The Story of Early Britain. N. Y. Putnams. 
Churchill, W. S. London to Ladysmith. N. Y. Longmans. 
Clemens, S. L. Joan of Arc. N. Y. Am. Publishing Co. 
Conybeare, E. Alfred in the Chroniclers. London. Stock. 
Coote, H. C. The Romans of Britain. London. Norgate. 
Corbett, J. Drake. N. Y. Macmillans. 

Cotton and Payne. Colonies and Dependencies. N. Y. Macmillans. 
Creighton. Simon de Montfort. N. Y. Longmans. 

Tudors and the Reformation. N. Y. Longmans. 

Cardinal Wolsey. N. Y. Macmillans. 

Age of Elizabeth. N. Y. Longmans. 

Cunningham, W. Outlines of Industrial History. N. Y. Macmillans. 

Cutts. Augustine of Canterbury. London. Methuen & Co. 

Denton, W. England in the Fifteenth Century. London. Bell. 

Firth. Cromwell. N. Y. Putnams. 

Fiske, The American Revolution. Boston. Houghton & Mifflin. 

Fox-Bourne. Sir Philip Sidney. N. Y. Putnams. 

Freeman, E. A.- Old-English History. N. Y. Macmillans. 

A Short History of the Norman Conquest. Oxford. Clarendon 

Press. 

Froissarfs Chronicles. Translated by Lord Berners, edited by G. 

Macaulay. Macmillans. 
Froude, J. History of England. 12 vols. N. Y. Scribners. 
Gardiner, S. R. Puritan Revolution. N. Y. Longmans. 
Gasquet, F. A. The Great Pestilence. London. Marshall. 
Green, Alice. Henry the Second. N. Y. Macmillans. 
Green, J. R. Conquest of England. N. Y. Macmillans. 

Short Geography of the British Isles. N. Y. Macmillans. 

Short History of the English People. N. Y. Harpers. 

Hale, E. Fall of the Stuarts. N. Y. Longmans. 

Hall, Clark. Beowulf in Modern English Prose. N. Y. Macmillans. 
Harrison, W. England. N. Y. Lovell. 

Howard. Preliminaries of the Revolution. N. Y. Harpers. 
Hume, M. Sir Walter Raleigh. N. Y. Longmans. 
Jewett, S. O. Story of the Normans. N. Y. Putnams. 

xi 



xii Books for Reference 

Johnson, A. H. The Normans in Europe. N. Y. Scribners. 
Kendall. Source Book of English History. N. Y. Macmillans. 
Lanier, Sidney. The Boys' King Arthur. London. Low. 

The Boys' 1 Froissart. N. Y. Scribners. 

Lawless, E. The Story of Ireland. N. Y. Putnams. 
Lecky. The American Revolution. N. Y. Appletons. 
Longman, W. Edward III. N. Y. Longmans. 

Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies. Oxford. Claren- 
don Press. 
Lyall. Warren Hastings. N. Y. Macmillans. 
Macaulay. Essays and lays. N.Y. Longmans. 

History of England. N. Y. Harpers. 

Mackintosh. The Story of Scotland. N. Y. Putnams. 
Maxwell. Robert the Bruce. N. Y. Putnams. 
McCarthy. History of Our Oivn Times. N. Y. Harpers. 
Morley, J. Walpole. N. Y. Macmillans. 

Morris, M. Montrose. N. Y. Macmillans. 

Oman, C. England and the Hundred Years' War. N. Y. Scribners. 

England in the Nineteenth Century. N. Y. Longmans. 

Warwick. N. Y. Macmillans. 

Parkman, F. Wolfe and Montcalm. Boston. Little, Brown & Co. 
Pepys, S. Diary and Correspondence. 4 vols. N. Y. Macmillans. 
Powell, F. York. Alfred the Great and William the Conqueror. 

London. Longmans. 
Rait. Mary Queen of Scots. London. D. Nutt. 
Roberts, C. G. D. History of Canada. Boston. Lamson. 
Rogers, J. E. T. Work and Wages. N. Y. Putnams. 
Roper. life of Sir Thomas More. N. Y. Lovell. 
Rosebery. Pitt. N. Y. Macmillans. 
Russell, Clark. Nelson. N. Y. Putnams. 
Russell, G. life of Gladstone. N. Y. Harpers. 
Schreiner, O. The South African Question. Chicago. Sergei & Co. 
Seeley, J. The Expansion of England. Boston. Little, Brown & Co. 
Smiles, S. life of George Stephenson. N. Y. Harpers. 
Stubbs. Early Plantagenets. N. Y. Longmans. 
Tancock. England during the American and European Wars. N.Y. 

Longmans. 
Thompson, E. Wars of the Roses. N. Y. Putnams. 
Tout. Edward the First. N.Y. Macmillans. 
Traill. Strafford. N.Y. Macmillans. 

William III. N. Y. Macmillans. 

Trevelyan, C. The American Revolution. N. Y. Longmans. 
Trevelyan, G. Englajid in the Age of Wycliffe. N. Y. Longmans. 
Van Tyne. The American Revolution. N. Y. Harpers. 
Warburton. Edward III. N. Y. Longmans. 
Windle, B. C. Life in /• arly Britain. N. Y. Putnams. 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND 



INTRODUCTION 

This royal throne of kings, this scepter'd isle, 
This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars, 
This other Eden, demi-paradise ; 
This fortress built by Nature for herself 
Against infection and the hand of war ; 
This happy breed of men, this little world, 
This precious stone set in the silver sea, 
Which serves it in the office of a wall, 
Or as a moat defensive to a house, 
Against the envy of less happier lands ; 
This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England. 
— Shakespeare, Richard II, Act II, Sc. I. 

Section i. Physical Features of the 
British Isles 

To understand a people we must know the land 
they live in. Is the climate cold, temperate, or tor- 
rid ? Is the soil fertile or barren ? Does the sea- 
coast afford safe harbors ? Can the inhabitants 
readily reach the countries with which they need to 
trade ? Climate, soil, watercourses, etc., help or 
hinder the prosperity of a people, and largely shape 
the course of their history. A nation can be strong 
and influential only when men are able to provide 
for their families and yet have time and money left 
for the service of the state. We shall see that the 



xiv Physical Features of the British Isles 



Extent. 
See map on 
p. 420. 



Relation to 
the land 
surface of 
the globe. 



land which has been the home of the English people 
for more than a thousand years offers most favorable 
conditions for the growth of a great nation. 

Situation. — The British Isles lie just off the west 
coast of Europe. They look on the map like cakes 
of ice crumbling away from a huge glacier. There 
are about five thousand islands in all. Some of them 
are mere ledges of rock that can serve only as nest- 
ing-places for sea-birds. Some of them, like the 
Shetlands and the Orkneys, the Hebrides, Skye, Mull, 
the Isle of Man, and the Isle of Wight, are large 
enough to furnish food and shelter to human beings, 
and have been inhabited from time immemorial. 
Two only, however, Great Britain and Ireland, are 
of sufficient importance to figure in the world's 
history. 

In area, the British Isles are but little larger than 
New England. They amount to something less than 
one four-hundredth part of the land surface of the 
globe. But the British people have grown so great 
that they rule to-day one-fourth of the earth's area. 
It is the proud boast of the Englishman that Britain's 
possessions encircle the globe and that the sun never 
sets on the king's dominions. One reason for this 
success is made clear by a study of the accompany- 
ing map. The British Isles lie very near the centre 
of the land surface of the globe. They are about mid- 
way between Cape Horn and New Zealand, Guada- 
lupe and the Cape of Good Hope. To the ancients, 
who thought the earth a flat disk and knew only the 




ENGRAVED BY BORMA 



Situation 



xv 



lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, Great 
Britain seemed to lie on the outer edge of the world. 
Since the discovery of America, Africa, and Australia, 
however, England stands in the direct path of the 




Land Surface of the Globe. 



world's trade. Her people are in position to take 
advantage of every political and commercial oppor- 
tunity. 

The Atlantic Ocean divides the British Isles from 
America, but Europe is within a few hours' sail. The 
English Channel is only twenty miles wide at the 
Straits of Dover, where the white cliffs of Kent may 
be seen from the French shore. Britain is essen- 
tially a part of Europe, and has always shared in its 
civilization. If the British Isles had been remote as 
Australia, the land might still be inhabited by a race 



Relation to 
Europe. 



xvi Physical Features of the British Isles 



Climate. 



Resources. 



of men as barbarous as the Black Fellows. Yet these 
narrow seas are so stormy as to make the crossing 
difficult. Shakespeare called the Channel an ocean 
wall, and thought it Britain's best defence against 
external foes. 

Industrial Opportunity. — If now we inquire what 
means the inhabitants have had for getting wealth, 
we find Britain richly provided. The sea abounds in 
fish, the coast is indented with excellent harbors, and 
the land is drained by fine large rivers. Many of 
these are navigable far into the interior and form a 
natural system of waterways of great importance to 
commerce. Where the rivers run rapidly down from 
the hill country to the sea as in the north of England, 
they cannot carry vessels, but they furnish water- 
power for driving mill-wheels. 

These islands are blessed with a warm and equable 
climate. The winters are as mild as those of Virginia, 
though Britain lies as far north as Labrador. The 
Gulf Stream crosses the Atlantic from the Gulf of 
Mexico to the British Isles and brings with it heat 
and a moist atmosphere. The west winds break wet 
and warm against the mountainous coasts of Ireland, 
Scotland, and Wales, and change into mist and rain. 
The western highlands, in fact, get too much water. 
By the time the winds reach England, they have shed 
the superfluous moisture and carry no more rain than 
is needed for agriculture. 

The land is everywhere fertile in the valleys, es- 
pecially in southern England, where the chalk hills 



Industrial Opportunity xvii 

wear away into the most productive kind of soil. 
The granite rocks of Scotland and Wales do not 
serve as well. Ireland has a fertile soil, but there is 
so much standing water, bog and marsh, that few 
crops can be grown. The drenched fields make 
excellent pasture, however, and produce cattle, milk 
and butter in plenty. 

The mineral wealth of the islands is considerable. 
Gold was once mined in Wales and in Ireland, but 
the veins are now practically exhausted. The hills 
of Cornwall bear tin and copper, and mines have been 
worked here for more than two thousand years ; but 
the underground treasures that have given richest 
returns are coal and iron. Great beds of coal lie in 
central England, in South Wales, and in the Lowlands 
of Scotland, but iron has been found in deposits rich 
enough for smelting in England alone. A review of 
the industrial resources of the British Isles will show 
that while neither Wales, Scotland, nor Ireland has 
been neglected by Mother Nature, England is the 
favorite daughter and has been given the richest 
inheritance. 

Section 2. Prehistoric Men 

The Cave Dwellers or Men of the Old Stone Age. — 

Of the original inhabitants of the British Isles, we 
know nothing from historic records. We can only 
guess at their manner of life by the relics they have 
left behind them. Rude weapons chipped out of 
stone, the charred bones of animals, and heaps of 



XV111 



Prehistoric Men 



savage man- broken clam-shells are found mingled with the skele- 
tons of these prehistoric men. They had no tools for 
building houses, and so were obliged to find shelter 




Flint Dagger. 

in caves and hollow trees. They did not know how 
to till the ground, so fed on what nature provided for 
the gathering, — nuts, berries, roots, and shell-fish. 
They had discovered how to start a fire by rubbing 
together sticks of dry wood. Game they hunted with 
slings and with sharpened bits of stone or flint. With 




Reindeer scratched on a Bit of Bone. 



these rude weapons they succeeded in killing even 
large animals, such as bison, wild horses, and reindeer. 
No one had learned to spin or weave, so they fash- 



The New Stone Age 



xix 



ioned garments of skins, catching the edges together 
with reindeer sinew threaded through bone needles. 
That they had keen eyes and the wish to make things 
beautiful we know by the drawings scratched on the 
bone handles of their weapons. 

The Men of the New Stone Age. — Why or when the 
cave dwellers disappeared, we do not know. They 

may have died of 
famine, or they 
may have fallen 
prey to wild beasts 
or to human ene- 
mies. The race 
that succeeded 
them was much 
farther advanced 
in the art of liv- 
ing. They had 
learned how to 
provide themselves 
shelter by digging 
pits in the ground, 
or by building 
hovels of stone 
and earth, roofed 
over with mud-plastered sticks. A group of such pits 
or huts was often encircled by an embankment of improve- 
earth, as a defence against foes — both brute and hu- 
man. Weapons were still made of stone and flint, but 
they were ground and polished to a cutting edge. 




Plan of a British Village, showing 
Ditches, Ramparts, and Clusters 
of Huts. 



ments. 



XX 



Prehistoric Men 



When these were fitted to wooden shafts, they made 
very good axes, spears, and arrows. Certain animals, 
such as hunting dogs, sheep, and cattle, were tamed for 
use. The forest trees were burned away and grain 





Stone Axe with Shaft Hole at a. Stone Axe set in Shaft. 



planted in the clearings. The soil was but rudely 
tilled, and crops were scanty enough, but they pro- 
vided a surer food supply than the chance gleanings 
of the cave dwellers. Rude implements were devised 
for twisting flax into thread and for weaving a coarse 



The Bronze Age 



xxi 



linen cloth. Pots and dishes for cooking and serving 
food were shaped out of moist clay and baked in the 
sun. Such utensils are found in the earth mounds 
where these strange men buried their dead. That 




Remnant of a Dugout Canoe. 



there was some commerce between distant settlements 
we may guess from the rude boats shaped out of hol- 
low logs which have been found among the remains 
of this epoch. These dug-out canoes were suited to 
river traffic, but could hardly have crossed the sea. 

Of the men of the bronze age we have more definite 
knowledge. They came from western Europe, where 
they probably had dealings with 
civilized peoples. They had 
learned to fuse copper and tin 
into bronze, a fine hard metal 
from which excellent swords, 
battle-axes, and shields might be 
moulded. These weapons gave 
them an enormous advantage 
over the natives of Britain, 
whom they readily conquered 
and reduced to slavery, or drove 
before them into the west and 
Bronze Weapons. north. With their keen-edged 




xxii Prehistoric Men 

axes, the new-comers felled the trees and built them- 
selves houses of timber. Strong and light canoes 
were made by stretching skins over a framework of 
wood. Similar boats, called coracles, are still used 
Roads. by fishermen on the Welsh rivers. Overland travel 

was made possible by paths cut through the forest. 
Hardly more than Indian trails at first, these tracks 
ways were beaten by centuries of use into broad 




A British Coracle. 

see map on roads. Some of them, as Ryknield Street and 
Icknield Way, are still travelled roads. 

The invaders settled in the fertile south country, 
and here the forests were cleared and men lived in 
fortified towns. There was probably a considerable 
city on the river Thames where London now stands. 
Communication with the Continent was easy. Con- 
siderable trade was carried on, and the arts of life 
were well advanced. Not only flax but wool was 
woven into cloth, and stuff garments were so gener- 



Primitive Life xxiii 

ally worn that the people were called Brythons, i.e. 
clad in cloth. 

Primitive Social Organization. — The wild tribes of Caesar > Com. 

mentaries, 

the interior did not plant corn, but lived on milk |t v\ch. 

and flesh and were clothed in skins. They owned 




Gallic Huts. 

great flocks of cattle and moved about the country 
in search of water and pasture. Since they stayed 
but a short time in one place, they built no substan- 
tial houses. Strabo, the ancient geographer, writes 
of these Britons : " Forests are their cities, for hav- 
ing enclosed an ample space with felled trees, they 



XXIV 



Prehistoric Men 



The patriar- 
chal family. 



The tribe. 



The tribal 
land. 



make themselves huts therein and lodge their cattle, 
though not for any long continuance." 

Each family dwelt by itself in a great hut of mud 
and boughs, children, grandchildren, and great-grand- 
children together, eating and sleeping about the 
common hearth, hunting and fighting under the 
direction of the head of the house. A group of 
such patriarchal families, springing from a common 
ancestor, made up a clan, and a number of related 
clans formed a tribe. The head of the principal 
family was ruler of the tribe. He led the warriors 
to battle and divided among them the spoils of vic- 
tory. He decided all questions in dispute among 
his people, and his word was law. Men of the 
same blood were bound to avenge an injury done 
to any member of the clan. A murderer was pur- 
sued to the death, and his kindred were forced to 
make amends to the family of the victim. This 
rough justice was apt to result in new injuries and 
so to give new occasion for revenge. Thus blood 
feuds arose, and inter-tribal wars. 

Another fruitful source of conflict was found in 
boundary disputes. No man held land of his own, 
in modern fashion, but every tribesman had the right 
to till a bit of cleared land, to pasture cattle in the 
open, and to gather wood from the forest, within the 
tract of country claimed by his tribe. An alien 
could not settle within the boundaries without per- 
mission, and trespass was cause for war. History 
tells us nothing of these fierce struggles, but the 



Primitive Life 



XXV 



arrows and spear-heads that are found buried in the 
soil mark the scene of long-forgotten battles, while 
the great embankments that crown many an English 
hilltop indicate the stern necessity for defence. 
Earthworks so extensive as those on Herefordshire 




Herefordshire Beacon. 

A triple-ramparted camp on one of the Malvern Hills. 



Beacon must have cost great labor to people who 
used neither plows, shovels, nor horses. Even more 
striking evidence of the skill and energy of these 
Britons is given in the groups and circles of mam- 
moth stones, brought together by what means we 



XXVI 



Prehistoric Men 



cannot guess, to serve as temples in the worship of 
their gods. 



The 
Phoenicians. 





















^§itKr\ a 














n 








































B j 






boHK ; > • 














n 




Hi 




i: '-■-' 




















Je-ii 
















i i 




5i|j||p" 


.«' 


U; 


% w 


"Bel ^ ■ 








^i'- M 


























u. 








S*3 




.'^ 







Stonehenge. 

Commercial Intercourse with the Continent. — It is 

probable that Great Britain first became known to 
Europe through the Phoenicians, the merchant ex- 
plorers of the ancient world. These adventurous 
navigators found their way from the Mediterranean 
through the Pillars of Hercules and north along 
the coast of Spain and Gaul to a land which they 
called the Cassiterides, or Tin Islands, because that 
precious metal was found there. The Phoenicians 
carefully guarded their secret. The story is told 
that one doughty captain, seeing that he was being 
followed by a strange vessel, ran his ship upon 
the rocks rather than betray his destination. Such 
a treasure, however, could not be hid. Before long 



Intercourse with the Continent 



xxvn 



the traffic was shared by the merchants of Gaul and 

of Rome. The tin was mined by the natives in Corn- The tin 

J trade. 

wall and the Mendip Hills, and carried down the 
Severn and the Thames to the sea. Thence it 
was transported in merchant vessels to the coast 
of Gaul and so up the Seine and down the Rhone 



CASSITKRIDKS 




re >-cules 








The Discovery of Britain. 



to the rich markets of the Mediterranean. Not 
tin only, but copper and grain, hunting dogs and 
slaves, did the Britons sell to the Gallic merchants. 
They got in exchange certain things that they had 
not skill to make for themselves, — fine cloth, jew- 
ellery, such as ivory bracelets and amber necklaces, 
and drinking vessels of glass. So a flourishing trade 
sprang up and was carried on for centuries before 



xxviii Prehistoric 

any one thought of taking possession of this far-away 
island. 

Early Descriptions of Britain. — To the inhabitants 
of southern Europe, Britain seemed as remote and 
bleak as Spitsbergen to us. One ancient writer 
describes it as " the land of the wintry pole." An- 
other tells how the natives gathered their sheaves of 
wheat into great barns and threshed them out under 
shelter "because they have so little sunshine that our 
open threshing-floors would be of little use in that 
land of clouds and rain." " The climate," said a 
Roman historian, " is unfavorable, always damp with 
rain and overcast with clouds." 

Only along the Thames valley and the chalk downs 
to north and south of it, was the country cleared and 
settled in farms and villages. The greater part of 
Britain was covered with a dense oak forest stretch- 
ing from sea to sea. This wilderness of trees was 
occasionally broken by an open hilltop that afforded 
grazing ground for cattle. Here, within walls of 
earth and tree trunks, dwelt the wild British tribes, 
jealously independent of one another and of all the 
outside world. Rude trails connected these tribal 
settlements with the river towns, where goods were 
loaded into boats and sent down to the seaports. 
The land was full of possibilities, but these were 
hardly known even to the merchants who went 
thither to trade. 



CHAPTER I 

THE BEGINNINGS OF BRITAIN 

Section i. Roman Britain 

Caesar's Invasion. — When Julius Caesar, the great 
Roman general, undertook to subdue the tribes of 
Gaul, he thought them cut off from outside aid by 
the western ocean. But he soon became aware that 
they were receiving help from across the Channel, 
and he concluded that he could not complete his con- 
quest of Gaul until the Britons had been taught to 
fear the name of Rome. One autumn day, fifty-five The first 
years before the birth of Christ, Caesar set sail from a emp * 
the harbor of Boulogne with eighty transports, carry- 
ing two legions of picked soldiers. Crossing to the csesar's Com 
sandy opposite coast, he found the landing difficult. Bk*iv7ch. 
The boats could not be beached in shallow water, and 
the men had to wade ashore. The Britons were 
gathered on the hillsides above and they proved 
more than a match for the Romans, weighed down 
with their armor and struggling in the water. 
The natives fought fiercely while they had this ad- 
vantage and then turned and fled. 



mentaries, 
Bk. IV, ch. 
XX-XXXVI 



The Beginnings of Britain 



The second 
attempt. 

Caesar's Com- 
mentaries, 
Bk. V,ch. 
VII-XXIII. 



Failure. 



Meantime, the galleys containing the cavalry on 
which Caesar was relying to make his way into the 
interior were driven back by contrary winds, and the 
transports drawn up along the shore were seriously 
injured. It was nearing the time of the equinoctial 
storms, and Caesar thought prudent to recross the 
Channel before the sea became more dangerous. 
He had extorted vain promises of tribute from the 
British chieftains, and so flattered himself that the 
expedition had not ended in failure. 

The following summer Caesar returned to enforce 
submission — this time with five legions and a large 
force of cavalry conveyed in galleys built expressly 
to weather the Channel storms. He found the tribes 
of the south in league against him, and though he 
was able to master them in open battle and to take a 
stockaded fortress, his heavily armored men could 
not pursue the natives into the forest nor protect 
themselves against ambushed foes. But the league 
of the tribes was like a rope of sand. The first heavy 
defeat induced several of the chiefs to send messen- 
gers offering submission. Soon all the tribes south 
of the Thames and east of the Solent acknowledged 
the sovereignty of Rome. The victory was, however, 
a barren one. Promises were made only to be broken. 
Again the storms wrought havoc with Caesar's ships, 
and again he was forced to withdraw from this in- 
hospitable island. 

The Conquest. — Nearly a century passed before the 
effort to subdue the island was renewed. Forty-three 



Roman Britain 3 

years after the birth of Christ, the Roman emperor 
sent an army of forty thousand men to take posses- 
sion of the country, now coveted as the source of 
a profitable trade. The power of Rome was far 
greater than in Caesar's day, and the army might be 
renewed as often as there was need. Confronted by 
an overpowering force, the Britons surrendered, 




A Bit of the Roman Wall. 



tribe by tribe, and accepted the rule of Rome. Camps 
were established and soldiers stationed wherever 
there was clanger of revolt. Lines of forts were 
built along the frontier, and these were connected by 
walls of earth or stone. Three such boundaries were TheRomar 
thrown up within a hundred years, and they serve to 
mark the rapid extension of the Roman dominion. 
The first connected the Wash with the Severn and 



walls. 



The Beginnings of Britain 



guarded the rich and populous south country, with its 
coveted tin mines, against the unconquered barba- 
rians of the interior. The wall of Hadrian crossed 
the island further north at a point where but seventy 
miles of rough moorland lay between the forts 
commanding Solway Firth and the Tyne. The third 
line of defence, the wall of Antonine, spanned the 
thirty miles from the Forth to the Clyde, and bounded 
the northernmost conquest. 

The Romans never succeeded in subduing the 
wild tribes of Wales and Scotland and did not attempt 
the invasion of Ireland. Discouraged as much by the 
difficulties of penetrating the country as by the brav- 
ery of the inhabitants, they left these remote and 
unpromising regions untouched. 

Character of Roman Rule. — The conquest was con- 
fined to that part of the island which makes up the 
England of to-day. Within these narrow boundaries 
the Roman government was maintained for more 
than three centuries. The country was always dis- 
tasteful to the sun-loving Italians, and none came to 
live in Britain except as military officers, tax-collectors, 
and merchants. Each hoped to win wealth or power, 
and as soon as this ambition was satisfied, he returned 
to a more congenial climate. There were probably 
never more than a few thousand Romans in Britain 
at any one time, and they formed a ruling caste whose 
main purpose was to get as much out of the country 
as it could be made to yield. The mines were worked 
to good profit by gangs of enslaved Britons. The 




ENGRAVED BY BORMAY 4 CO., N. 



Roman Britain 5 

fertile lands were cleared and divided into great es- 
tates for the benefit of the new masters, and the fields 
were cultivated as never before, under the direction of 
Roman overseers. New kinds of seed, fruit trees, 
grapevines, and better breeds of horses and cattle 
were brought over from the Continent. Britain soon 
became known as the granary of the north and sent 
shiploads of food to Rome. The conquerors de- 
manded tribute not only of corn, but of men, and the 
British were forced to fight the battles of the Empire 
in far-distant lands. They made fierce but unavailing 
protest. " Our money is conveyed into their treasury, protest of 
and our corn into their granaries. Our limbs and 
bodies are worn out in clearing woods and draining 
marshes : and what have been our wages ? Strikes 
and insult! " 

Effect of Roman Civilization. — Such improvements 
as suited their purposes, the Romans did not hesitate 
to make. Theatres, baths, and beautiful residences, The yjiia of 
well heated by hot-air furnaces, were built for their crake, 
comfort. Fine roads were laid from one end of the 
island to the other, in order that troops might be 
marched from camp to camp and corn carried from 
the interior to the seaports. Some of these, such as 
Watling Street and the Fosse Way, are still in use. 
Considerable towns grew up about the fortified camps 
and at the centres of trade, and here the life of Rome, 
not its culture alone, but its amusements and its 
vices, was copied with some success. The Britons 
of the towns learned to speak the Latin language, and 



6 The Beginnings of Britain 

eagerly imitated the Roman fashions ; but the gay 
Demoraiiz- life served only to sweeten slavery. They learned 

ation of the . 

Britons. nothing useful from their masters, and lost in manli- 

ness. In the rural districts, the natives remained 
ignorant barbarians, but the habit of servitude robbed 
them none the less of their primitive strength and 
courage. 

Section 2. The English Settlements 

Britain abandoned by Rome. — When at the be- 
410 a.d. ginning of the fifth century, Rome, attacked by 

barbarians and needing all her defenders, withdrew 
the troops from this her remotest conquest, the 
demoralized Britons were left to take care of them- 
selves. They proved quite unequal to the task. 
The rival British generals fell to quarrelling, the 
frontier garrisons were not maintained, and the 
land fell a prey to its barbarous neighbors. The 
Barbarian Picts pushed down from the north over the unde- 

invasions. l 

fended walls, the Scots crossed the Irish Sea and 
made their way up the rivers of the west coast. 
These were old acquaintances and might have been 
withstood, but a new and more dangerous foe ap- 
peared in the east. The tribes of north Germany, 
starving in the swamps and forests of their native 
land, began to explore the Channel coasts with a 
view to plunder. Setting out in pirate bands, each 
led by a warrior chief, they crossed the sea in open 
boats and, coming to the coasts of Britain, forced a 
landing. Their eyes were gladdened by rich corn- 



The English Settlements 



■a 



fields and prosperous towns. Easily overpowering 
the inhabitants, they greedily possessed themselves 
of the wealth that lay at their mercy, destroying 




Ancient Boat found in Jutland. 

what they did not want or could not understand. 
" They levelled, trampled down, and swept off what- 
ever came in their way," says an old historian, " as if 
they were reaping corn ripe for the harvest." 

The terrified Britons lacked a leader. They were 
long unaccustomed to warfare and could make no 
determined resistance. Despairing of beating off the 
enemy unaided, they appealed to the emperor for 
help. " The barbarians," said they, " drive us to the The appeal 
sea, the sea throws us back on the barbarians ; thus 
two modes of death await us. We are either slain 
or drowned." But Rome could send no assistance, 
and the barbarians waxed stronger from year to year. 
Coming at first for plunder, they stayed only through 
the summer season, but learning that the country 
was both a rich and an easy prey, they returned in 



8 



The Beginnings of Britain 



The coming 
of the Anglo- 
Saxons. 
449-607 A.D. 



Lanier, The 

Boys King 
Arthur. 



Limits of the 
conquest. 



The Camp on 
the Severn, 
by Crake. 



greater numbers, bringing wives and children, and 
meaning to settle in the land. 

The Conquest. — Three distinct races are recog- 
nized by the early chroniclers. The Jutes came first 
and got possession of the fertile district between the 
Thames and the Straits of Dover. The Saxons con- 
quered the Thames valley west to the Mendip Hills 
and south across the Downs to the Channel coast. 
The Angles, landing at various points along the east 
coast, forced their way inland to the Severn and the 
Irish Sea. Little by little all Britain that had been 
held by the Romans was won by these new invaders. 
Too weak and disorganized to make a strong stand, 
the natives were either slain, enslaved, or driven to 
take refuge in the forests, fens, and hill districts. 
The legends of Arthur tell the sad story of the weak- 
ness and cowardice of the Britons. 

The un-Romanized tribes to the west and north, 
strong in their untamed barbarism and in the natural 
defences of their mountains, escaped conquest. For 
centuries thereafter they maintained their native 
language and customs, their pastoral life and tribal 
independence. 

Character of the Settlements. — With the triumph 
of the Anglo-Saxons, all influence of the Roman occu- 
pation was lost. The Latin language was no longer 
spoken, the Roman law was forgotten, the Christian 
temples were destroyed, commerce with the Continent 
ceased. 

The new masters were barbarians, it is true, but 




r — 5 



^ 



The English Settlements 




Iron Axe. 



they were far more advanced in the art of living than 
were the Britons before the Roman conquest. Their improved 
weapons were made of iron, a metal lighter and less 
brittle than bronze, 
and not so costly 
but that plows and 
spades might be 
tipped with it. No 
sooner was a bit of 
territory won, than 
the victors aban- 
doned the pirate's life 
and settled down to 
cultivate the soil. 
The land was par- 
celled out to the warriors in strips convenient for cultivation 
ploughing. Permanent ownership in land was not 
yet understood, but every freeman had the right 
to plant his acre in the grain fields, to pasture his 
cattle in the meadows, and to gather fuel from the 
woodland. Houses were roughly built of wood, not 
within walled towns, but in the open country. 
Every village with its lands was surrounded by a The tribal 
strip of waste or by a dense thicket of trees. The 
stranger who crossed this belt of forest must blow 
a horn to warn the inhabitants of his approach. 

Intertribal Wars. — Every pirate chief was fol- 
lowed by his own immediate kin who, after the 
settlement, regarded him as king. Each tribe was 
independent of all others and jealously resented 



of the soil. 



village. 



The Beginnings of Britain 



Supremacy 
of Wessex. 



Law and 
justice. 



Industry. 



interference with its boundaries. The ambition of 
a strong king often led to an attempt to conquer 
an adjoining tribe. Such aggression was promptly 
resisted, and war followed. 

For centuries the land was devastated by inter- 
tribal strife, one king after another attaining the title 
of bretwalda, or ruler of all Britain, only to be over- 
come in his turn by a stronger rival. Finally, the 
southernmost kingdom, Wessex, attained the mas- 
tery, and King Egbert (800-836) was recognized as 
overlord of all the English. His realm extended 
from the Tamar to the Tweed, from the Severn to the 
Channel — almost the present confines of England. 
The original tribal territories, such as Kent and 
Sussex, came soon to be regarded as mere shires or 
divisions of the greater whole. 

Anglo-Saxon Civilization. — The long struggle had 
wrought much suffering, but it was not without good 
results. The Anglo-Saxons began to long for peace 
and order. They had learned the necessity for laws 
that should determine men's rights and for a ruler 
who had authority to enforce justice. Injuries were no 
longer avenged by new injuries, but by money fines. 
Wise kings caused the laws to be written down so 
that all might know the penalty for wrong-doing, and 
they were accustomed to sit in judgment in a pub- 
lic place where the poorest might come with his 
complaint. 

When peace and order were assured, men could lay 
aside their weapons and do something to add to the 



The Engl is J i Settlements 



II* 



comfort and beauty of 
life. They began to 
build . handsome houses 
of stone, and gave more 
attention to tilling the 
fields and to raising 
sheep and cattle for 
food. Goods came to 
be manufactured for 
sale as well as for 
family use. The brace- 
lets wrought by English 
goldsmiths, and the fine 
plaids woven by Eng- 
lish looms, were famous 
even upon the Conti- 
nent. 





Upper Part of Iron Sword. 

Christianity. — 
The Christian re- 
ligion, preached 
by missionaries 
sent from Rome, Kentcon- 

, , . verted by 

and by monks Augustine, 



who had taken 
refuge in Ireland 
from the fury of 
the invasion, had 
been accepted by 
all the English 



Primitive Loom from the Faroe Islands, kingdoms before 



597 ad. 



12 



The Beginnings of Britain 



the end of the seventh century. Under the influence 
of the clergy, the Latin language began to be studied 
and the writings of learned men were read. Monas- 
teries, communities of men or women who had 
devoted their lives to the service of God, were estab- 




Residence of a Saxon Nobleman. 

The proprietor, seated at the entrance of the great hall, is engaged in almsgiving; 
on his right are a number of armed vassals, on his left is a chapel at the door 
of which a lamp is hanging. 



lished even in the wildest districts. The monks 
taught the people how to till the fields to bet- 
ter advantage, and many arts, such as glass-making 
and wood-carving, flourished under their fostering 
care. Every such community maintained a school 
as well as a farm and a workshop. Here men were 






The English Settlements 13 

taught to read and write, and here the Scriptures were 
translated from Latin into the Saxon tongue. Books 
were not printed in those days, but written in a fair 
large hand on parchment scrolls. Such a manuscript 
required years of labor and was guarded as a precious 
possession within the monastery walls. 

Books for Study 

Church, The Story of Early Britain. 
Windle, Life in Early Britain. 
Coste, Romans of Britain. 

Suggestive Questions 

Section i. — Why did Caesar desire to conquer Britain? 
Why did he fail? Why did the conquest undertaken a century 
later succeed? Indicate on a map the three Roman walls. 
What parts of Britain remained independent of Rome? 

Section 2. — Account for the ease with which the Angles, 
Saxons, Jutes conquered Britain. Draw on a map (1) the 
portion settled by each race, (2) the seven kingdoms into which 
England was later divided, (3) the realm of Egbert. 

Special Topics 

King Arthur : Lanier, The Boy's King Arthur. 

Beowulf: HalFs translation. 

St. Augustine : Cutts, St. Augustine of Canterbury. 



CHAPTER II 

THE STRUGGLE WITH THE DANES 

When thy great soul was freed from mortal chains, 
Darling of England ! many a bitter shower 
Fell on thy tomb ; but emulative power 
Flowed in thy line through undegenerate veins. 
The race of Alfred covet glorious pains 
When dangers threaten, dangers ever new ! 
Black tempests bursting, blacker still in view! 
But manly sovereignty its hold retains ; 
The foot sincere, the branches bold to strive 
With the fierce tempest, while, within the round 
Of their protection, gentle virtues thrive. 

— Wordsworth, His [Alfred's] Descendants. 

Section I. The Coming of the Danes 

Hardly had the English ceased to war among 
themselves and begun to turn their attention to the 
arts of peace when a new barbarian invasion plunged 
the land into fresh strife. Toward the end of the 
The vikings, eighth century, three hundred and thirty years after 
the Jutes landed in Kent, a new race of pirates 
came swarming down from the Baltic to prey upon 
the civilized nations of Europe. Coming as the Jutes 
and Saxons had come, in war-bands aiming at plunder, 
they were at first content to fall upon the coast 
country, seize what they might of food and treasure, 

14 



The Co mi Jig of the Danes 




The Viking Ship sent to the Columbian Exposition, with Ocean 
Steamer in the Background. 



i6 The Struggle with the Danes 

and escape oversea with their booty. As they 
gained in numbers and experience, however, they 
made their way into the interior and attacked popu- 
lous towns. The terror of the English is expressed 
by writers of that day in words of hate and fear. 
The invaders are called " cunning foxes," a " disor- 
de ly," " pestilential," or " impious crew," " the foul 
plague," the " pagan army of hateful memory." The 
Danes were nearly related to the Jutes and Angles 
and spoke a similar language, but the English had 
forgotten their own origin and thought the new- 
comers pirates and barbarians. 

The Unequal Contest. — The English made but 
feeble resistance. They had lost courage and skill 
for fighting in the years of order and plenty. They 
had become farmers, merchants, priests. Prosper- 
ous, contented, loath to sacrifice their new-won com- 
fort, sluggish by nature and jealous of authority, 
they could be induced to take the field only when the 
invaders threatened their own immediate possessions. 
Then, undisciplined as they were and rudely armed, 
fighting on foot in small detached bands, shire by 
shire and town by town, they were easily beaten by 
the armies of the Danes. They could do no better 
than purchase a brief security by paying tribute to 
Danish the victors. The vikings, on the other hand, had 

made war a profession. Their fighting men were 
clad in coat of mail and carried shields to ward off 
the blows of the enemy. Once landed at a point 
where there was promise of booty, they seized each 



methods of 
war 



The Coming of the Danes 



17 



man a horse and, so mounted, scoured the country far 
into the interior. Every raid was a disaster to the 
English, marked by smoking houses and blackened 




Danish Armor. 



fields ; but their enemies had nothing to lose. When 
brought to bay, the " foxes " threw up earthworks at 
some point of vantage and defied attack. Worsted 
hi battle, they fled oversea no poorer than they came. 



iS The Struggle with the Danes 

The black keels of the vikings multiplied year 
by year until they darkened the sea. Pushing up 
m the five the rivers of the east coast, they overran Kent, East 
seTto^r Anglia, Northumbria, and Mercia, and after great 
slaughter forced the inhabitants to yield them place. 
Once secure in possession of a tract of land, the 
leaders portioned it out among their men, and the 
fierce sea-rovers began to plow and sow the fields as 
if they meant to stay. The eastern half of England, 
where most of their settlements lay, was henceforth 
called the Danelagh. 

Section 2. Alfred the Great 

The strong kings of Wessex had thus far been able 

to beat off the invaders, but the realm was peculiarly 

exposed to attack. The inlets of the south coast were 

The invasion s0 man y open doors, while the British Channel and 

of Wessex. J r 

the river Thames gave access to the inland towns. 
When the kingdoms north of the Thames had been 
subdued, the latest-come vikings turned to the south, 
bent on winning a foothold there. Wessex was the 
richest and most populous part of Britain. Win- 
chester, the royal city, had already been sacked, and 
Egbert's realm seemed about to share the fate of the 
rest of England, when a king came to the throne who 
was able to defend it. 

Alfred's Boyhood. — The prince who was long after 
known as England's Darling, England's Shepherd, 
was the youngest of four sons, with very little pros- 



Alfred the Great 19 

pect of ever wearing the crown. 1 Asser, his friend Asser's Life 
and biographer, says that he was comely and well °f Al f rei 
beloved beyond his brothers. 

He loved hunting and excelled in it, but he loved 
books and the pursuit of knowledge even more. 
It was not thought necessary in those days that a 
prince should know how to read. He must be able 
to fight for his country and to defend it against 
attack. Book-learning was left to priests and scribes. 
But this prince thought wisdom the most important 
part of a ruler's outfit. 

Thus quoth Alfred, our delight : 

" He may be no king of right 

Under Christ, who is not fiird 

With book-lore, in law well-skill'd ; 

Letters he must understand 

And know by what (right) he holds his land." 

— Pi'overbs of Alfred. 

His First Battle. — Alfred would gladly have devoted 
his life to study. These were troublous times, however, 
when men had little opportunity for reading books. 
The prince was only twenty years of age when he was 
summoned to join his brother, King Ethelred, in an 

1 Egbert, 802-837 
Ethelwulf, 837-858 

I i i 1 

Ethelbald, Ethelbert, Ethelred, Alfred, 871-901 
858-860 860-866 866-871 I 

Edward the Elder, 901-923 

I 
Edmund, 940-946 

I 
Edgar, 959-975 



20 The Struggle with the Danes 

expedition against the Danes. The pirates had got 
possession of Reading and fortified a camp near by. 
Ethelred summoned all his fighting men, and, giving 
Alfred command of half the force, marched to the 
relief of the city. Asser tells the story of the battle. 

Battle of The king lingered long in his tent at prayer, but 
Alfred, believing that God meant him to act, bravely 
led his troops to meet the hostile army. The odds 
were against him, for the pagans occupied high 
ground, and the Christians had to charge them from 
below. A stunted thorn tree stood in the path of the 
contending armies, and around this the battle raged. 
" The opposing forces came together with loud shouts 
from all sides, the one party to pursue their wicked 
course, the other to fight for their lives, their dearest 
ties, and their country. When both armies had 
fought long and bravely, at last the pagans were no 
longer able to bear the attacks of the Christians, and 
having lost great part of their army, took to disgrace- 
ful flight." 

This was bravely done, but fourteen days later 
the Saxons met the rallied Danes and were defeated. 
Nine great battles were fought in that year, to say 
nothing of many raids and skirmishes, and though 
the Danes were often put to flight, they as often 
returned by stealth and regained the lost ground. 

wessextmys Finally a new army came oversea to reenforce the 
invaders, and the Saxons were forced in their turn to 
buy a truce. 

Accession to the Throne. — When Ethelred died, 



Alfred the Great 21 

Alfred was made king almost against his will, " for 
he did not think he could alone withstand the multi- 
tude and ferocity of the pagans." His forebodings 
were justified. Promises meant nothing to these 
lawless marauders, and their oaths were lightly 
broken. Having taken pledge on the sacred relics 
to leave the kingdom, they straightway set forth on 
a new raid. Moreover, the supply seemed inexhausti- 
ble. " The number of that disorderly crew," says 
Asser, " increased every day, so that if thirty thousand 
of them were slain in one battle, others took their 
places to double the number." 

Wessex was 111 Prepared for Resistance. — None of 
the towns were defended by walls, not even London, 
and there were few places strong enough to stand 
a siege. The Roman fortifications had long since 
fallen into decay, and the freedom-loving Saxons 
had never rebuilt them. There was no regular 
army. The landowners were required to come at 
the summons of the king, every man bringing his 
own weapons, and the shires sent each its levy of 
half-armed peasants ; but the troops so gathered were 
obliged to serve only a few months at a time. They 
expected to go home for the harvest. Furthermore 
there was no navy. The English were once sea- 
rovers themselves, but they had forgotten their sea- 
manship. They had no vessels nor sailors capable of 
encountering the great fleets of the Danes. 

Defeat. — It seemed at first that the odds were too 
great. In 877 a viking army landed on the south 



22 



The Struggle with the Danes 



The king in 
hiding. 



The story of 
the cakes. 



coast and fortified a camp at Exeter. The king laid 
siege to the place, but he could not take it. From 
this vantage-ground the Danes made plundering 
raids into the heart of the kingdom. They carried 
terror and desolation into a district hitherto at peace. 
Many of the inhabitants fled oversea to Ireland. 
Those who could not escape were reduced to sub- 
jection. Even the king was forced to go into hiding. 
With a few of his nobles and soldiers he led the life 
of an outlaw among the woods and moors of Somerset. 
To provide themselves with the necessaries of life, 
they were obliged to forage the country and to seize 
supplies from the Danes or even from the Christians 
who had submitted to Danish rule. Sometimes none 
of Alfred's subjects knew where he was or what had 
become of him. It is said that he once visited the 
enemy's camp disguised as a harper, in order to learn 
how best to attack it. 

Asser tells an amusing story of this time. The 
king had taken refuge at the house of one of his own 
cowherds. " It happened on a certain day that the 
country woman, wife of the cowherd, was preparing 
some loaves to bake, and the king, sitting at the 
hearth, made ready his bow and arrows and other 
weapons. The unlucky woman, espying the cakes 
burning at the fire, ran up to remove them, and re- 
buking the brave king, exclaimed (in the Somerset 
dialect) : — 

"<Cas*n thee mind the ke-aks, man, and doosen zee 'em burn? 
Tm boun thee's eat 'em vast enough az zoon az 'tiz thee turn.' 



Alfred the Great 23 

The blundering woman little thought that it was King 
Alfred, who had fought so many battles against the 
pagans and gained so many victories over them." 

Victory. — In the spring of 878 Alfred and the 
trustv vassals who shared his hiding-place built a 
stronghold on an island which rises out of a marsh Fortress of 
on the river Parret. From this he sallied forth again 
and again to strike a blow at the pagans. The king 
of Wessex seemed no more than a guerilla chief liv- 
ing by plunder, but the English recognized in him 
the hope of the nation. " All the neighboring folk 
of Somersetshire and Wiltshire and Hampshire, who 
had not for fear of the pagans fled beyond sea," 
gathered to him, " and when they saw the king aliv^ 
after such great tribulation, they received him as he 
deserved, with joy and acclamations." 

Once in command of an army, the king marched 
to encounter the Danes. He met them at Edington, Battl eof 

& ' Edington,87a 

and a desperate battle began. From sunrise to sun- 
set the clatter of the weapons was heard. The king 
fought in the midst of his men, to whom " his look 
shone as that of a shining angel." At last the Danes 
were defeated with great slaughter and driven to 
take refuge in their walled fortress. To this the king 
laid siege. All the people of the country round about 
were in sympathy with him and lent him aid. After 
fourteen days, the pagans, conquered by famine and 
cold, and reduced to despair, asked for peace. The 
conditions were generous. The Danes promised to 
withdraw from Wessex and gave hostages in pledge 



24 The Struggle with the Danes 

peace of of good faith. Their king, Guthrum, accepted Chris 
wedmore, t j anity anc j was shortly after baptized with thirty of 
his followers. Two years later Guthrum led his men 
into East Anglia and divided the land among them. 
The peace with Wessex held for seven years. 

Fortifications and a Standing Army. — The interval 
of quiet was devoted to strengthening the defences of 
London the realm. London had been long in the hands of 

restored, 886. the Danes . Alfred laid siege to the place and drove 
out the enemy, much to the joy of the English in- 
habitants, who hailed him as a saviour. He then 
rebuilt the city, repaired the walls, and made it again 
habitable, a bulwark against the Danelagh. Roches- 
ter, Exeter, and other Saxon cities were restored in 
the same manner. 

In order that there might be a force ready to 
march at the word of alarm, the king arranged a 
rotation of service. The men who could bear arms 
were divided into two parts. One half was to remain 
at home while the other was in the field. Every 
fortified town was garrisoned by a colony of warriors. 
Hasting's Invasion. — Fifteen years of compara- 
tive peace were accorded to the distressed kingdom. 
Then a new invader burst upon the land like a dev- 
astating storm. In 893, Hasting, a famous chief- 
tain who had been for years the scourge of France, 
crossed the Channel with a mighty army and in- 
Reenforce- trenched himself in Kent. Many Danes from Nor- 

ments from J 

thumbna and East Anglia, restless spirits who could 
not be bound by treaties, joined him. From their 



lagh 



Alfred the Great 25 

fortified camps the pirate bands preyed upon the 
coast country. At last the king brought his new- 
formed army to the place, and, watching his oppor- 
tunity, fell upon the whole force at Farnham and 
drove them beyond the Thames. There Hasting 
built a new camp, where he might bestow the women 
and children and the spoils of war. 

The Northumbrians and East Anglians took ships 
and sailed to Exeter, the scene of their former 
triumphs. The city was now strong enough to stand 
a siege, but King Alfred turned about and marched 
westward as rapidly as he might. At his approach 
the pirates took to their ships, and sailing along the 
coast, landed at Chichester and wrought great damage 
through the countryside. Driven thence, they rav- 
aged other coasts, burning and plundering wherever 
they could force a landing. 

The Fleet. — Then King Alfred commanded long 
ships to be built to oppose the " wave-horses " of the 
Danes. " They were full nigh twice as long as the 
viking ships," says the chronicler's proud account. 
" Some had sixty oars and some had more ; they were 
both swifter and steadier and also higher. They 
were shapen neither like the Frisian nor like the 
Dane, but so as it seemed to him they would be 
most efficient." Trained sailors were found among the 
converted Danes. Thenceforth the little navy kept 
guard in the Channel and warded off new invaders. 

The Harrying of the Danes. — Meantime, Hasting 
was making trouble in the interior. He had built a 



26 



The Struggle with the Danes 



The Danish 
fortress on 
the Lea. 



fortress at Shoebury, where he might readily take 
ship for the Continent, and there he gathered a great 
body of Danes, Anglians, and Northumbrians. For 
three long years the great viking tormented Eng- 
land. Summer after summer he led his plundering 
army through the heart of the country, burning 
and slaying and laying waste the land, until at 




Saxon Ships. 

last not Wessex only, but Mercia and North Wales, 
were ready to serve King Alfred against the common 
enemy. 

Again and again was the cunning of the royal 
commander taxed to the utmost. In the hope of get- 
ting possession of London, Hasting built a fortress on 
the Lea, twenty miles above the city. The men of 
London went out against the Danes, but could not 
dislodge them. Then the king brought his army 




ENGRAVED By B0B-4AT i. I 



Alfred the Great 27 

and camped near to the city, that the people might 
reap their corn in safety. One day when Alfred was 
riding along the river Lea, he saw that the stream 
might be dammed so that the Danes could not bring 
down their ships, and he gave orders that this should 
be done. When the Danes saw that they had been 
trapped, they broke camp and fled across country. 

The fourth summer found the vikings in no mood to 
continue the struggle, and the terrible army broke up. 
Some made their way back to East Anglia and Nor- 
thumbria to settle in the Danelagh. Others pro- 
cured ships and made for France and fresh plunder. 
Hasting, too, crossed the sea without gain and with- 
out honor. 

Death of Alfred. — "Thanks be to God," cries the 
chronicler, " the army had not utterly broken down 
the English nation." But the three years' struggle 
had meant heavy loss. Many great men of the king- 
dom had fallen in battle. Fields lay uncultivated, and 
pestilence ravaged the devastated land. The king 
himself was worn to the point of breaking. He lived 
to enjoy but four years of the peace he had won for 
Wessex. In 901, Alfred, "the immovable pillar of 
the West Saxons," died. In his will he directed that 
his slaves be set free, and that if any man had a just 
claim against him, it should be paid in full. He had 
been true to his ideal. " So long as I have lived, I 
have striven to live worthily, and after my death to 
leave my memory to my descendants in good works." 



28 The Struggle with the Danes 

Section 3. Achievements of the Reign 

Alfred is the only one of the long line of English 
kings who has been honored with the title of " the 
Great." The importance of his work can hardly be 
overestimated. He rescued England from barbarism 
when he confined the Danes beyond the Thames and 
protected the south coasts against further invasion. 
He laid the foundations for the English kingdom 
when he built a navy and organized a permanent 
military force. But he did not merely defend his 
realm ; he maintained a wise and just government. 

Laws. — Alfred was by nature and training a states- 
man, and he made use of every peaceful interval in 
his stormy reign to set in order the government, so 
that his people might dwell secure from evil-doers. 
He gathered together the laws that had been thought 
good by former kings, omitting all that was out of 
date and adding what he deemed necessary to suit 
the wants of his own day. In this work he had the 
The witan. R \d f the Witan, an assembly of the wise and power- 
ful men of the kingdom. 

How wild and rough were the times, we may know 
from the crimes cited. Fighting in the king's hall 
or fighting before the archbishop was punished by 
heavy fine. Injury done to a freeman was to be 
atoned for by money payment to the wronged man 
or to his family. Every injury had its price. "If 
a man strike another man's ear off, let him give thirty 
shillings to boot." " If the arm be broken above the 



Achievements of the Reign 29 

elbow, there shall be fifteen shillings to boot." " If 
the thumb be struck off, for that shall be thirty shil- 
lings to boot." This was rough justice, but it had 
the effect of checking crime, and it was a far better 
way to right a wrong than the old law of revenge 
and the blood-feuds to which it gave rise. 




The Witanagemote or Meeting of Wise Men. 

Law Courts. — The king was especially eager that 
justice should be done to the poor, " to whose interest," 
Asser tells us, "he ever was wonderfully attentive." 
When a controversy was brought before him, he exam- 
ined with greatest care into the truth of the matter, so 
that wrong-doers came unwillingly into his presence. 

The ealdormen who were responsible for deciding Theeaidor- 
suits in the shire courts soon learned that they responsible 
must execute the law without fear or favor. " The forjustlce - 
king inquired into almost all the judgments which 



Their 
ignorance. 



30 The Struggle with the Danes 

were given throughout all his dominions, whether 
they were just or unjust. If he perceived that 
there was iniquity in those judgments, he sum- 
moned the judges and asked them mildly why they 
had judged so unjustly ; whether through ignorance or 
malevolence, i.e. whether for the love or fear of any 
one or hatred of others, or for the desire of money. 
At length if the judges acknowledged they had given 
judgment because they knew no better, he reproved 
their ignorance and folly. " I wonder truly at your 
rashness, that, whereas by God's favor and mine you 
have occupied the rank and office of the wise, you have 
neglected the studies and labors of the wise. Either, 
therefore, at once give up the discharge of the duties 
which you hold, or endeavor more zealously to study 
the lessons of wisdom. Such are my commands." 

" At these words the ealdormen and prefects would 
tremble and endeavor to turn all their thoughts to 
the study of justice, so that, wonderful to say, almost 
all his officers, though unlearned from their cradles, 
were bent upon learning, choosing rather laboriously 
to acquire the knowledge of a new discipline than to 
resign their functions ; but if any one of them from 
old age or slowness of talent was unable to make 
progress, he commanded his son, if he had one, or 
one of his kinsmen, or, if there was no other person 
to be had, his own freedman or servant ... to recite 
Saxon books before him night and day, whenever he 
had any leisure. . . . They lamented with deep sighs 
in their inmost hearts, that they had not learned these 



Achievements of tJie Reign 31 

things in their youth, and now, when they were old, 
though wishing to learn them, they were unable." 

Education. — As far as was possible in those troubled 
times, Alfred provided for the education of his people. 
The Danes had destroyed the monasteries, and with 
them perished books and learned men. When Alfred 
came to the throne, there were few left in England 
who could read the native Anglo-Saxon, fewer still 
who understood Latin. The king set himself the 
task of translating into the language of the common 
people such works as might make them wise, history 
and geography, treatises on philosophy and selections 
from the Christian fathers. 

Learned men, such as Asser the Welshman, 
were welcomed to his court, and they were employed 
in teaching and translating under the king's direction. 
The king's purpose, as stated in his own words, was 
that " free-born Englishmen, such as have wealth 
enough to maintain them, be brought up to learn, so 
that, at an age when they can do nothing else, they 
may learn to read the English language." The Latin 
tongue was to be taught to such as showed them- 
selves worthy of promotion. 

Alfred rebuilt the monasteries and gathered to them 
scholars from all lands. In these quiet retreats the The 
love of learning was kept alive and the youth of 
the land were trained for the service of God and the 
king. Here were written the manuscript books of 
that day, and here the records of the kingdom were 
kept. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the first history of 



monas 
teries re- 
stored. 



32 



The Struggle with the Danes 



England, was undertaken at the king's command 
and is our most reliable source of information for the 
until 1154 next two hundred years. 

Industry. — This many-sided monarch gave much 
attention to the art of building. Not monasteries 
only, but churches and palaces 
were built under his direction 
with a grandeur and beauty un- 
known since the Roman occupa- 
tion. He interested himself in 
the work of the craftsmen, sug- 
gesting better ways of working 
in gold and in glass. The best 
known relic of this art is a gold 
and enamel jewel found near 
Athelney and preserved at Ox- 
ford. It is known as Alfred's 
jewel, and was in all probability 
worn by the great king. 

In this reign the long severed 

intercourse with the Continent 

was renewed. Alfred had twice 

visited Rome in his youth, and 

he understood how important to England were the 

men, books, and ideas of the 'older civilization. He 

maintained friendly relations with far-distant courts, 

receiving embassies from France, Spain, and even 

from Jerusalem. 




Alfred's Jewel. 

Aelfred had me made 



Intercourse 
with the 
Continent 



Alfred's Successors 33 

Section 4. Alfred's Successors 

Edward the Elder (901-925). — Alfred's immediate 
successors were worthy of their inheritance. Edward, 
the eldest son, had received a thorough training as 
soldier and statesman, and was well fitted to build on 
the foundations his father had laid. The defences 
of the kingdom were vigorously maintained. Many 
towns along the English border, such as Chester, 
Hereford, Stafford, Tamworth, and Warwick, were 
fortified against attack. The king bade that all 
craftsmen and merchants should live and carry on 
their trade within the walls. The immediate purpose 
was security, but an important result was a rapid 
growth of the town population. By Edward's vigor- Recovery 

11 -l- t T- -r- a 1. of the Dane 

ous though conciliatory policy, Essex, East Angha, iagn. 
and Danish Mercia were brought under English rule. 

In the reconquest of England, Edward was ably 
seconded by his sister, Ethelfleda, the valiant queen Etneineda 
of Mercia. At the death of her husband, she took 
up the task of defending the frontiers, and led her 
troops against Wales and the Danelagh alike. Bren- 
nock, the stronghold of the North Welsh, was car- 
ried by storm. Leicester, Derby, and other cities 
held by the Danes were conquered one by one. 
Some thirty towns were thus recovered by the war- 
like brother and sister. 

Wherever he appeared, Edward was welcomed as 
a deliverer by the English population. Especially 
did the peasantry, who had suffered much at the 



overlord 



54 The Struggle with the Danes 

The weish hands of the Danes, seek his peace and his pro- 
and the scots tect : on $ o- re at was the fame of his victories 

acknowledge L ^ L " ^ 

Edward as that t ^ e North Welsh and the Welsh of btrathclyde 
acknowledged his sovereignty, and the Scots "sought 
him for father and lord." 

Edgar the Peaceful (959~975)- — The descendants 
of Edward so vigorously maintained the West Saxon 
supremacy that when Edgar came to the throne he 
was greeted not as king of the English only, but as 
ruler of all Britain. The story is told that he was 
rowed on the river Dee by eight subject kings. His 
fleet of stout ships guarded the coast against the 
Danes and made him master of the seas. The reign 
of Edgar marks the reconquest of Egbert's kingdom 
and the final triumph of the Anglo-Saxon over the 
Dane. From the sea to the Tweed and the Severn, 
the great-grandson of Alfred ruled supreme. 

Dunstan. — Much of the success of Edgar's reign 
was due to Dunstan, the Archbishop of Canterbury 
and chief adviser of the king. He induced the Da- 
nish districts to accept quietly the English rule by 
appointing as ealdormen princes of their own blood, 
and by allowing them to be governed by Danish law. 
He none the less enforced order and justice throughout 
the realm, rebuking the king himself for wrong-doing. 
For learning also he did much, reviving the monastic 
schools and bringing teachers from the Continent, as 
Alfred had done. Dunstan was the first ecclesiastic 
to take a leading part in the government of the 
kingdom. 



Alfred's Successors 35 

The Triumph of the English. — The Danes were 
easily reconciled to English supremacy. They were 
of the same Scandinavian stock as the Jutes and 
Angles, and spoke a kindred language. They had 
accepted Christianity as the price of peace, and as 
they settled down upon their lands, they readily 
adopted the ways and speech of the English inhabit- 
ants, and became, in their turn, prosperous farmers, 
craftsmen, and merchants. With the Welsh and The Welsh 
Scotch it was otherwise. They remained alien and a n alien 
hostile, retaining the Celtic language and their pecul- people - 
iar tribal organization long after the English over- 
lordship had been accepted. 

Books for Study- 
Green, Conquest of England. 
Bowker, Alfred the Great. 
Thomas Hughes, Alfred. 
Church, The Story of Early Britain. 
Freeman, Old English History. 

Suggestive Questions 

Section i. — Describe the Danish pirates and their methods 
of war. Why was the resistance of the English so feeble ? 

Section 2. — Compare Alfred's kingdom with that of Egbert. 
How did he enable Wessex to defeat the Danes ? Describe the 
struggle (1) with Guthrum, (2) with Hasting. 

Section 3. — What was Alfred's work (1) for the law, (2) for 
the courts of justice, (3) for education. (4) for industry ? 

Section 4. — Draw a map of the kingdom of Edward the 
Elder. How was it won ? What was the extent of Edgar's rule ? 

Special Topic 

Dunstan : Hunt, History of the English Church, Vol. I, 
ch. XVII-XIX. 



CHAPTER III 

FOREIGN KINGS 

Duke William. Since I knew battle, 
And that was from my boyhood, never vet. 
No, by the splendor of God, have I fought men 
Like Harold and his brethren, and his guard 
Of English. Every man about his king 
Fell where he stood. They loved him : and, pray God 
My Normans may but move as true with me 
To the door of death. Of one self-stock at first, 
Make them again one people — Norman, English ; 
And English. Norman : — we should have a hand 
To grasp the world with, and a foot to stamp it . . . 
Flat. Praise the Saints. It is over. No more blood! 
I am King of England, so they thwart me not, 
And I will rule according to their laws. 

— Tennyson, Harold. 

Section i. Decay of the Saxon Kingdom 

Ethelred "the Unready," the younger son of 
Edgar, wore the crown of England for thirty-seYen 
years (979-1016). It was a long and disastrous 
reign. Dunstan, Edgar's able adYiser, was dead, and 
no one so wise was found to take his place. The 
kingdom, held together with difficulty eYen by a strong 
ruler, began to go to pieces. The earls of Mercia 
strove to be independent of Wessex, and the princes 
of the Danelagh grew unruly. Vikings from the 

36 



Decay of the Saxon Kingdom 37 

north once more ravaged the coasts. In 982, Olaf, 

king of Norway, and Swegen, king of Denmark, Newinva. 

1 • , sions. 

brought over a great army, meaning to conquer the 
land. Sailing into the Solent, the Danes plundered 
the cities of the south coast, and slew or took cap- 
tive the wretched inhabitants. Marching westward, 
they plundered Dorset and Somerset and forced 
their way even to Chester. 

Cowardice of the English. — The terrified English 
thought to bribe the barbarians to return to their own 
land, and the YVitan offered a tribute of p£ 10,000. 
Thereupon Olaf withdrew his army. But no sooner 
was one band of pirates bought off than a new host 
appeared to plunder in their turn. In vain the YVitan 
ordered a fleet to be made ready to meet the invaders 
at sea and summoned the national forces to take the 
field. The Saxons were betrayed by their own com- 
manders. yElfric, the treacherous ealdorman of Mer- Treason of 

-,. . , , • , .ffilfric. 

cia, to his great disgrace, deserted his army the 
night before the battle, and the Danes escaped un- 
hurt. 

Waxing insolent and fearless, the vikings left 
their ships and the seacoast, and taking horses, rode 
whithersoever thev would. Kent was ravaged, and 
Essex, Sussex, and Hampshire. Again and again 
were the English beaten and their costly prepara- 
tions brought to naught because of the cowardice 
of their leaders. " In the end," says the discour- 
aged historian, " neither the naval force nor the land 
force accomplished anything but the people's distress 



2 8 Foreign Kings 

and a waste of money and the emboldening of their 
foes." 

Massacre of St. Brice's Day. — Despairing of resist- 
ance, the king and the Witan decided to give lands 
and money on condition that the plundering raids 
should cease. Treachery followed close upon cow 
ardice. No sooner had the Danes settled down to 
quiet living than King Ethelred gave command to 
slay them all. The English were ready to do his 
bidding, and in one terrible day every city in Wes- 
sex was stained with the blood of the Danes. 

Swegen's Vengeance. — Among the slain was the 
sister of the Danish king. When the news was 
brought him, the viking vowed revenge. Crossing 
the sea with a great army, he swept through the 
country from shore to shore, kindling his war bea- 
cons as he went. Town after town was sacked and 
the people slain, until he had marked every shire in 
Wessex with burning and with slaughter. Larger 
and larger tribute the Witan raised without avail 
rhe witan (,£36,000 in 1007, ,£48,000 in 1012). The vikings 

pays tribute. . 7 

continued to rob and burn and slay without mercy 
until the miserable people ned to the forests and the 
trackless fens for refuge. The chronicler relates 
that all the wise men were summoned to the king and 
asked to advise him how the country could be de- 
fended. " But though something was then resolved, 
it stood not even for a month. At last there was not 
a chief man who would gather a force, but each fled 
as best he might, nor even at last would any shire 



Decay of the Saxon Kingdom 39 

assist another." The men of East Anglia, indeed, 
made a brave stand against Swegen's army, and the 
citizens of London stoutly and successfully defended TheLon- 
their walls ; but though the king again and again 
appealed to the nation to gather in arms to meet the 
foe, and though the shires sent their levies, he could 
make no headway against Swegen. The English 
were beaten, not so much by the valor of the Danes 
as by jealous quarrels among themselves. 

The Danish Conquest. — Finally, King Swegen 
entered the Humber with a vast army, and the men 
of the Danelagh submitted to his rule. Northumbria, 
Lincolnshire, and Mercia, all of England north of 
Watling Street, gave hostages and promised alle- 
giance. As the Dane marched south, the principal 
cities surrendered to him one by one, — Oxford, the The wailed 
seat of an ancient monastery, and Winchester, Al- <jj£ es surren - 
fred's capital, and Bath, the Roman city in the west. 
The townsmen of London fought bravely till they 
learned that all of Wessex was lost. Then they gave 
in their allegiance to the hated Dane. Ethelred fled 
oversea, and Swegen was hailed as king of England. 

The conqueror enjoyed the fruits of his victory 
but a single year. At his death the army chose his 
son Canute for king. Then the Witan declared for 
Ethelred and boldly pronounced " every Danish king 
an outlaw forever." The Unready returned to Eng- 
land only to die, but the English cause was stanchly 
maintained by his son, Edmund Ironside. Five times Edmund 
did the valiant young king assemble an English force 



40 Foreign Kings 

to do battle with the Dane. Each time he suffered 
defeat through the cowardice or treachery of his own 
men. At last the Witan proposed a compromise. 
Edmund should reign in Wessex, the kingdom of 
Alfred, while Canute held Mercia and the Danelagh, 
A few days after the peace, Edmund was foully mur- 
dered, and Swegen's son fell heir to the whole of 
England. 

Canute (1017-1035). — Canute had waged war like 
a barbarian, but he ruled England as a Christian 
king. The Danish troops were sent back to Den- 
TheDane- mark, and though the money tribute was still exacted, 
no plundering was allowed, and the people enjoyed 
a much-needed peace. Conqueror though he was, 
Canute made no distinction between Dane and Eng- 
lish. All were to live alike under the law ordained 
by Edgar. The viking gave England an even better 
assurance of humane treatment when he accepted the 
conversion Christian religion. The story is told that, rowing 
one day on the Ouse, he heard the chanting of 
the service in the monastery of Ely and was deeply 
touched. 

Merrily sing the monks of Ely 

When Cnut the king comes rowing by ; 

" Row nearer to the land, my men, 

That we may hear the good monks 1 song." 

Toward the end of his reign, Canute made a pil- 
grimage to Rome. From that sacred spot he wrote 
a letter to his people in which he expressed the up- 
rightness of his purpose : " I have vowed to God to 



EMPIRE 
OF CANUTE 

SCALE OF ENGLISH MILES 
25 50 100 150 200 




ENGBA/ED BY BDRMAY 



Decay of the Saxon Kingdom 41 

lead a right life in all things, to rule justly and piously 
my realm and subjects, and to administer just judg- 
ment to all. If heretofore I have done aught beyond 
what was just, through headiness or negligence of 
youth, I am ready with God's help to amend it 
utterly." 

Canute ruled over a domain larger than any Eng- Canute's 
lish king had yet dared dream of. Besides England, mpue ' 
he held Denmark by hereditary right, and by con- 
quest Norway, Iceland, and the islands of the North 
Sea. The king of Scots renewed the oath of hom- 
age first given to Edward the Elder, and the Welsh 
paid tribute. 

Renewed Strife. — When the great Dane died 
his empire fell to pieces. In England, the Witan 
agreed that his sons, first Harold and then Hartha- Harold (1035- 
canute, should succeed him. There was little to Harthacanute 
choose between the two princes. They were hard, ( I0 4°- I0 4 2 )- 
cruel men who cared for England only as a source of 
tribute. When Harthacanute died, the people, glad 
to return to the English line, chose Edward, the 
younger son of Ethelred, king. 

Edward the Confessor (1042-1066). — Their rejoic- 
ing was premature. Edward, called the Confessor 
because of his piety, proved but a feeble ruler. He 
had spent his youth in exile at the court of Rouen 
and was more French than English. He brought 
with him to England a following of French priests 
and nobles, who quickly made themselves hateful to 
the English by their proud and greedy ways. 



42 



Foreign Kings 



Earl Godwin. 



Edward owed his crown to Godwin, Earl of Wes- 
sex, the steady champion of the English. In return, 
the king married his daughter Edgitha, and placed 
his sons in the chief earldoms. So supported, a 
strong ruler might have saved England from further 
strife. But Edward was weaker than his " unready " 
father, and quite unequal to the task of defending and 
ruling this troubled land. The Welsh and Scotch 




King Edward on his Throne. 



Exile of 
Godwin and 
his sons 
(1051). 



raided the Borders. Pirates pillaged the coast towns. 
The lesser earls rose in revolt, and sought allies in 
Scotland, in Wales, and in Ireland. The foreign 
courtiers preyed upon the land, demanding service 
at the hands of the English as of a subject people. 
They even used their influence with the king to shake 
his confidence in the great earl. Finally, Godwin 
and his sons were forced to flee the kingdom, and 
Lady Edgitha was driven from the court. 

Civil Strife. — The English party, always strong 
in the south country, now declared against the for- 



Decay of the Saxon Kingdom 43 

eign-hearted king, and the seaports of Kent and 
Sussex and Surrey sent ships and sailors to Earl 
Godwin's aid. His valiant son Harold brought reen- 
forcements from Ireland. Accompanied by a great 
force, the outraged earl sailed up the Thames to 
London, meaning to avenge his wrongs. There he 
found the king's troops marshalled on the strand, 
but the battle did not take place. The leaders 
were struck with sudden shame. Why should Eng- 




Harold with a Hunting Party. 

lishmen slay Englishmen when foreigners threatened 
the realm ? The Witan arranged a reconciliation. 
Godwin and his sons were restored to their posses- 
sions, and all the Frenchmen who had given evil 
counsel to the king were sent oversea. 

Harold. — Hardly had this hopeful peace been con- Harold, the 

J r r Last 0/ the 

eluded when the great earl died. Harold succeeded Saxon 
to his earldom and to his perplexities. Godwin's son 
Tostig had been appointed Earl of Northumbria, but 
he proved unequal to the government of that turbu- 
lent land. The Danes rose in rebellion, declared him 



by Bulwer. 



44 



Foreign Kings 



Harold 
elected king. 



an outlaw, and chose Morkere to rule Northumbria 
in his stead. Hopeless of restoring order otherwise, 
Edward yielded to the demands of the insurgents. 
Tostig fled oversea, vowing vengeance on the king 
and on the lukewarm brother who had failed to 
plead his cause. With all these evils Harold strove 
as best he might, and showed himself so valiant in 
the field and so wise in council that when Edward 
died childless, the Witan chose the son of Godwin to 
succeed him. 

Harold was not of the royal line, but he was, in 
the judgment of the English people, the fittest man 
to reign. Although Edgar Atheling, grandson of 
Edmund Ironside, might claim the crown by heredi- 
tary right, no voice was raised in his behalf. The 
election was, however, protested from across the 
Channel. 



The Little 
Duke, by 
Charlotte M. 
Yonge. 



Section 2. The Norman Conquest 

Normandy. — Among the Northmen who had been 
plundering the coasts of Europe was one Rollo the 
Ganger, who surpassed them all in daring and in 
statecraft. He had succeeded in establishing posses- 
sion of a strip of territory at the mouth of the Seine, 
called thereafter Normandy. Once recognized as a 
duke of France, Rollo accepted Christianity, married 
a French princess, and set about governing his new 
subjects with such wisdom that the former pirate 
became known as the father of his people. Rude 
and violent though they seemed, the Norman vikings 



The Norman Conquest 45 

quickly understood that the people they had con- 
quered were their superiors in civilization. They 
adopted the Frankish religion, language, and laws 
with such zeal that within the century after Rollo 
the Normans had become essentially French. 

Several ties bound England to the dukedom across Relations 

between 

the Channel. King Ethelred had married a Norman England and 

princess, Emma, the great-granddaughter of Rollo, orman y * 

and it was at Rouen, the capital of Normandy, that 

he found refuge when driven from his kingdom by 

the Danes. There Edward had spent his boyhood, 

and formed a fatal fondness for French priests and 

French ways. When the Confessor came to the 

English throne, he invited Duke William to visit 

him in London, and there promised, so the story ran, 

that the Norman should succeed him. The promise 

was worthless, for a Saxon king had no right to 

will away the crown. That was in the gift of the 

Witan. 

Duke William claims the English Crown. — Never- wniiam the 
theless, when Edward died childless and Harold was b y Napier? 
elected king, William put in his protest. Another 
claim he had, but no more valid. Harold, some years 
before, had been wrecked on the French coast, and 
falling into William's hands had been induced to give 
a solemn promise that he would acknowledge the 
duke's right to the English crown. When Harold, 
regardless of his oath, accepted the offer of the Witan, 
William swore to win the kingdom by force. In 
the spring of the year of 1066, he gathered an army of 



a6 



Foreign Kings 



Invasion of 
England. 



Normans and Frenchmen, and crossing the Channel 
with a fair wind, landed at Pevensey. 

Harold had collected a great fleet and an army 
mightier than any England had yet seen, to meet his 
rival. Backed by a united nation, he might easily 
have driven William from the land, but treachery 
once more gave England a foreign king. Tostig saw 




William's Fleet crossing the Channel. 



Battle of 
Stamford 
Bridge, 
Sept. 25, 1066. 



in his brother's peril a fitting opportunity for revenge. 
With three hundred ships, sent to his aid by the 
king of Norway, he sailed into the Humber, gave 
battle to Morkere and his brother Edwin, the Earl 
of Mercia, and won a signal victory. Harold was 
obliged to hurry north to their defence. In the battle 
of Stamford Bridge, he put an end to his brother's pre- 
tensions. Tostig was slain and the Norwegians were 
forced to swear never to molest England more. 




ENGRAVED By BOflMAY & CO., N.Y. 



The Norman Conquest 47 

Battle of Hastings (Oct. 14, 1066). — The victory 
was won at heavy cost. During his absence, Duke 
William had made good a landing, put up fortifi- 
cations, and fully provisioned his troops. Harold Aifie^'^ 
hurried south to meet him with only part of his army, Tenn y son - 
since the northern earls refused to follow. He was 
forced to give battle while his men were still weary 
and unprepared. The Normans were mailed knights, 
mounted on fresh horses, while the major part of 
Harold's force were half-armed peasants. Neverthe- 
less, the English fought with stubborn courage. All 
day they stood their ground, and again and again they 
hurled back their foes. But for the fierce energy of 
Duke William, they might have won the day. Once 
the cry arose that the duke was slain, and his men 
• faltered. Turning in the saddle, he shouted, " Here 
is Duke William," and lifted his helmet that they 
might see his face. Toward sunset a well-aimed 
arrow pierced Harold's eye, and he fell, never to rise Harold slain, 
again. Not only the king, but his brothers, Earl Leof- 
win and Earl Gyrth, and many a good man more, were 
lost. At last the English troops fled in confusion. 

The Coronation. — The army was scattered, but 
William had yet to reckon with the English people. 
The townsmen of London elected Edgar Atheling 1 

1 Ethelred, 979-1016 

Edmund Ironside Edward the Confessor, 1042-1066 

Edward 



Edgar Atheling Margaret, m. Malcolm, king of Scots 
Matilda 




Flight of the English. 
48 



The Norman Conquest 49 

kins:, and the northern earls promised him support. Edgar Atne- 

& ' r rr ling, elected 

But again they hesitated to fight, and they were king, 
debating what to do, when William's army came to 
the gates of London. Then when resistance was no 
longer possible, London submitted, and the great 
men took oath to serve the Norman. 

William was crowned at Westminster, in the beauti- 
ful cathedral built for the Confessor, by the same 
archbishop of York who had just anointed Edgar 
king. Before the crown was set on his head, the 
Conqueror swore " that he would govern the nation The coro . 
as well as any king before him had best done if natlonoath - 
they would be faithful to him." He probably meant 
what he said. For the bloodshed that followed, 
William is no more responsible than the English earls, 
who, having failed Harold in his hour of need, now 
undertook, single-handed, to defend their own posses- 
sions. Edgar had sworn fealty to William with the 
others, but he soon withdrew to Scotland, where he Edgar in exile 
was hospitably received by King Malcolm. All the 
rest of his life " the Child " was plotting to regain 
the throne of his ancestors. 

Precautions. — No sooner was he crowned, than 
William set about strengthening his hold upon the . 
land. Heavy taxes were wrung from the people, and 
the men of property were forced to feed and shelter 
the king's troops, each according to the measure of 
his estate. Castles were built throughout the realm 
wherever there was danger of revolt. In each was a 
garrison of men devoted to the Norman cause. 



50 



Foreign Kings 



William trusted no man with such power as God- 
win and Harold had held. Great estates he gave 
to his followers, it is true, but scattered piecemeal 
in various parts of England, so that no vassal was 
stronger than the king. On the frontiers, however, 



. 




Keep of Rochester Castle with its Entrance Tower. 



The Norman 
earls 



William gave to his representatives large authority. 
His half-brother Odo was made Earl of Kent that he 
might ward off attack from the Channel. William 
FitzOsbern was created Earl of Hereford. He and 
the earls of Chester and Shrewsbury were expected 



The Norman Conquest 51 

to hold the Welsh in check. Durham was the seat 
of a fifth great earldom and served as a bulwark 
against the Scotch. 

Insurrections. — Not all these precautions could 
save England from devastating war. The Welsh 
rose against FitzOsbern and laid siege to the castle 
of Hereford. The men of Cornwall gathered at 
Exeter and held out against the king's army until 
their leaders betrayed them. The sons of Harold 
came over from Ireland with a pirate fleet and 
ravaged the west coast. The Danes, led by the 
grandsons of Canute, crossed the Channel with a 
great fleet to fight for their inheritance. 

With marvellous swiftness the king met each fresh 
rising, crushed each new foe, and dealt out terrible 
punishment to traitors. The Danelagh was most diffi- 
cult to subdue. Three times the Northumbrians rose 
under the lead of the northern earls, Edwin and 
Morkere, to fight for Child Edgar. Summoned to 
the north by the third rising, the king deter- 
mined to make an example of the rebellious district. 
He gave orders that the land should be laid waste by The wasting 
fire and sword. The cities and villages were reduced I0 6 9 . 
to ashes, and the crops destroyed. The miserable 
inhabitants were killed or left to die of starvation. 
For fifty years thereafter Yorkshire remained a 
wilderness. 

The great earls came to a shameful end. Edwin 
was basely slain by his own men. Morkere, with a 
following of desperate outlaws, found refuge from the 



52 



Foreign Kings 



He reward, 
the Wake, 

by Charles 
Kingsley 



fury of the Conqueror in the fens of Ely. There 
William besieged them both by land and sea until 
hunger forced them to surrender. Hereward, only, 

the last of the Eng- 
lish, maintained an 
island fortress in the 
marshes and defied 
the Norman king. 

The fame of the 
Norman's cruelty and 
prowess preceded 
him even to the fron- 
tiers of his terrified 
kingdom. Chester 
and the Welsh border 
submitted after brief 
resistance, and Mal- 
colm, king of Scots, 
was forced to ac- 
knowledge William 
as overlord. The 
chronicler believed 
that if he had reigned 
but two years longer, 
" he would by his 
valor have won Ire- 
land, and that without any weapons." Even the 
Danes dared not meet him in battle, and finally 
abandoned their plundering raids. 

Norman Treachery. — William's anxieties were not 




Norman Soldiers. 



William's Work for England 53 

limited to English discontent. His Norman fol- 
lowers, even his own sons, proved disloyal. The 
lords whom he had enriched conspired against him. 
His half-brother, Odo, was suspected of treason. 
The eldest son, Robert, angered because he was not 
allowed to rule in Normandy, made war upon his 
father. No less severe with false friends than with 
outspoken foes, William crushed the traitorous 
nobles, threw his brother into prison, and drove his 
son into exile. 

So stern and cruel was this king that no one dared 
do anything against his will. The frightened chron- 
icler tells of the suffering he wrought. " Castles he 
caused to be made, and poor men to be greatly op- 
pressed. The king was very rigid, and took from 
his subjects many a mark of gold. . . . He had 
fallen into covetousness, and altogether loved greedi- 
ness. He planted a great preserve for deer, and he The deer 
laid down laws therewith, that whosoever should slay 
hart or hind should be blinded. He forbade the 
harts and also the boars to be killed. As greatly did 
he love the tall deer as if he were their father. He 
also ordained concerning the hares, that they should 
go free. His great men bewailed it, and the poor 
men murmured thereat ; but he was so obdurate that 
he recked not of the hatred of them all." 

Section 3. William's Work for England 

The Royal Authority Secured. — In the administra- 
tion of his kingdom, the Conqueror proved to be an 



54 Foreign Kings 

able statesman. In the first place he made the best 
possible use of his opportunity to bring every con- 
siderable man in England under direct control of the 
king. The estates of the vanquished Saxon lords 
were confiscated and made over to trusty Normans 
whose interests were bound up with those of the Con- 
queror and who could therefore be relied upon to deal 
severely with the rebellious English. Some twenty 
thousand Frenchmen thus stepped into the places 
of as many Saxon landowners. According to Nor- 
man law, the king owned all the land in England. 

Feudal He granted estates on condition that the man so 

favored should render some service in return. A 
great lord or baron was bound to contribute warriors 
to the king's army in proportion to the extent of his 
lands. The vassal in turn granted portions of his 
estate to knights who were bound to furnish each an 
armed and mounted soldier. Thus the king might 
summon a well armed force to follow him to war. 
Military service was required of every man of rank, 
and war became the business of the upper classes. 

Thesaiis- In order to impress upon each man his personal 

bury Oath. .... r 

1086. responsibility to himself, William summoned all his 

vassals to meet him on Salisbury Plain. There one 
by one they knelt before him, and each man, 
placing his hands between those of his sovereign, 
swore to " be faithful to the king before all other 
men." 

Position of the Clergy. — The dignitaries of the 
church, archbishops, bishops, and abbots, held land 



William's Work for England 



55 



on the same terms as the lay-lords. They, too, were 
bound to fight the battles of the king, and sent war- 
riors in proportion to their lands, sometimes riding 




William I granting Lands to his Nephew, the 
Earl of Brittany. 



56 



Foreign Kings 



Lanfranc, 
Archbishop 
of Canter- 
bury. 



in person at the head of their retainers. The clergy 
took an active part in the government not only of 
their own estates, but of the kingdom. Their loyalty 
was of great importance to the king. William, 
therefore, removed the Saxon bishops and appointed 
Normans in their place. Lanfranc, whom he made 
archbishop of Canterbury, was the king's most trusted 
adviser. He played the part of Dunstan, fostering 
education, enriching the church, and reconciling the 
English to the Norman rule. 

The Great Council. — In order to interest his pow- 
erful vassals in the business of the realm, all the 
earls and barons were required to meet the king in 
the Great Council held three times a year, at Christ- 
mas, at Easter, and at Whitsuntide. Here William 
appeared before them, wearing crown and sceptre, 
to announce his royal will or to consult them on 
some matter of importance. The Council had not 
so much power as the Witan had enjoyed. It was 
merely a conference of the king's friends and ad- 
visers, the bishops, the barons, and other principal 
landowners. 

The Administration of Justice. — King William did 
what he could to check violence and cruelty. The 
laws of Edward the Confessor were declared to be 
binding on Saxon, Dane, and Norman alike. The 
shire courts were maintained. Able men were ap- 
theDUceof 6 P ointed sheri ffs and given authority to enforce the 
law. The king even attempted to learn English 
that he might understand the suits brought before 



the place of 
earldorraen 



William s Work for England 57 

him and make sure that justice was done to all 
his subjects. The royal authority was made supreme 
through the length and breadth of the realm. Even 
the Saxon chronicler, who tells us of William's cruelty, 
acknowledges this. " Among other things is not to 
be forgotten the good peace that he made in this 
land ; so that a man who had any confidence in him- 
self, might go over the realm with his bosom full of 
gold, unhurt. Nor durst any man slay another. . . . 
King William was a very wise man and very 
powerful, more dignified and strong than any of his 
predecessors were. He was mild and good to the 
men who loved God, and beyond all measure severe 
to the men who gainsaid his will." 

The Serfs. — Upon the life of the common people, 
the men and women who plowed the fields and 
wove the cloth and in other ways provided food and 
shelter for warriors and statesmen, the effect of the 
conquest was slight. They toiled on in the little 
country villages (called manors by the Normans), 
speaking the Saxon language, holding to the Saxon 
customs, and knowing little or nothing of the great 
change that had passed over England. They re- 
mained in possession of the plots of land their fathers 
had tilled before them, each man rendering certain 
servile dues to his immediate overlord. The require- servile dues 
ments varied in different parts of the country and 
between different men on the same estate. Accord- 
ing to the terms of his charter, a serf must work on 
his lord's land, without pay, two or three days every 



58 



Foreign Kings 



week, and more at harvest time. He might also be 
asked to tend his master's sheep or to carry his corn 
to mill. The remaining time he was free to work 
on his own bit of ground. Part of the product of 
his fields he must bring to the manor house, so many 
bushels of grain, so many hens and pigs and sheep. 




Tickill Castle, near Doncaster. 

A typical manor of the Conqueror's day. Notice the keep, the drawbridge, the moat, 
as well as the windmill, watermill, church, and the village where lived the serfs. 



Cultivation 
of the lord's 
demesne. 



A bit of money might also be required, if money was 
to be had. 

These services were performed but grudgingly, for 
any man would prefer to till his own fields and pro- 
vide for the needs of his own family. On every con- 
siderable estate there was a bailiff or steward whose 
duty it was to see that the products were all brought 
in on the stated day and to direct the labor upon the 



William *s Work for England 59 

land reserved to the lord's use. It was an awkward 
and wasteful way of getting work done, but there was 
so little coin in use, that no man thought of paying 
money rent and money wages. 

The serf could not leave the estate where he 
was born, nor marry his daughter, nor send his 
son to school, without his lord's consent. He was 
obliged to grind his corn at the lord's mill, bake his 
bread in the lord's oven, brew in the manor vats, 
and for each of these privileges he paid a good round 
fee. 

The Towns. — A serf had a chance to better him- 
self, if he managed to escape from the manor and 
find employment within the walls of a city. The law 
allowed that in case he remained unclaimed for a 
year and a day, he became a free man. Then he 
might learn a trade, acquire wealth, and come to be 
a person of importance. 

There were no large cities in the Conqueror's day 
except on the seaboard. London was growing rich 
and powerful because it stood at the gate of the 
Thames and commanded the Channel trade, but the 
city could boast no more than 35,000 inhabitants. 
England was now in close touch with Normandy. 
Many of the barons held estates in both countries 
and made frequent journeys to and fro. Merchants 
from the Continent brought their goods to England commerce, 
for sale, and made their way to the principal towns 
of the interior. Under the stern rule of the Con- 
queror, the highways were cleared of thieves, and 



5o Foreign Kings 

trade was rendered secure. The Jews were for the 
first time allowed to settle in England. They could 
live only in certain quarters called Jewries, under 
cover of the king's favor, but they soon grew 
so rich as to waken the envy of the English mer- 
chants. 




"The Jew's House" at Lincoln. 

Example of Norman Building. 



Section 4. The Conqueror's Sons 

William II (1087-1 100). — When the Conqueror 
died, he divided his realm between the two elder 
sons. Robert received Normandy, then regarded 
as the more important half of his father's pos- 
sessions, and William, the next younger, England. 



The Conqueror s Sous 61 

To Henry Beauclerc, the scholar of the family, 
was given a large sum of money and some private 
estates. 

William the Red had inherited all the evil traits 
in his father's character, but none of the good. His 
greed was restrained by no sense of justice, and 
his headstrong will was guided by no statesman- 
like foresight. The kingship was to him merely 
the opportunity for raising money. " He was 
very rigorous and stern over his land and his men 
and toward all his neighbors, and very formidable," 
says the chronicler, " and through the counsels of 
evil men, who were always pleasing to him, and 
through his own covetousness, he was ever torment- 
ing this nation with an army and with unjust exac- 
tions." 

Insurrection. — The king's tyranny was quickly 
resented by the great Norman barons. Under Odo, 
Duke of Kent, they revolted and declared that they 
would have Robert for king. The Welsh princes 
and Malcolm, king of Scotland, seized this opportu- 
nity to break their oaths of fealty and march across 
the Border. In his extremity, William turned to the 
despised English and promised them to abide by 
Edward's laws and to exact no more money than was 
the royal due. They rallied to his support and fur- 
nished the army of twenty thousand men with which 
the insurrection of the barons was put down. The 
rebels once crushed, however, the king forgot his 
promises. In this only did William Rufus deserve 



62 



Foreign Kings 



Henry's 
charter. 



Itinerant 
justices. 



Matilda, the 

English 

queen. 



the gratitude of the people : he allowed no tyranny 
but his own. 

Henry I (1100-1135)- — The red king was killed 
one summer morning while hunting in the New For- 
est, by an arrow sent from the bow of one of his own 
retainers. No one wept for the stern and evil man, 
and when his younger brother was made king in his 
stead, the people rejoiced. The Conqueror's scholar 
son had won their confidence. At his coronation, 
Henry gave a solemn promise " to put down all the 
injustices that were in his brother's time and to main- 
tain the best laws that had stood in any king's day 
before him." The pledge, put into writing, was 
understood to be a charter or solemn agreement as 
to the terms on which the king held the throne. 

Henry was as good as his word, and he further 
required the barons to deal justly by their vassals. 
The king sent his officers twice every year to visit 
the shire courts and make sure that the sheriffs 
were doing their duty. The zeal with which he 
enforced the law and punished wrong-doers won for 
him the title of the Lion of Justice. " A good 
man he was," says the chronicler, " and all men 
stood in awe of him ; no man durst misdo against 
another in his time. He made peace for man and 
beast." 

As a proof of good faith, Henry chose for his 
queen Matilda, daughter of Margaret of Scotland, 
and niece of Edgar. The courtiers gave the Saxon 
princess a grudging welcome. They mocked the 



The Conqueror s Sons 63 

good king and queen for their love of the people, 
and called them Farmer Godric and his good-wife 
Godiva. The English, however, were well content 
that the Norman king should marry a princess of the 
English line. 

Troubles of the Reign. — Restless under the re- 
straints imposed by Henry, the barons rose in revolt. 
Those of them who held estates across the Channel 
preferred that the kingdom and the duchy should be 
ruled by the same man. They therefore declared for 
Robert, Duke of Normandy, and hoped to make him 
king of England. Henry, like William the Red, was 
forced to rely upon the English, and they gladly fur- 
nished him soldiers to fight the hated barons. The conquest of 
thirty-five years of Henry's reign were filled with 
this long contest against his brother. In the end, 
Robert was taken prisoner, and Henry became master 
of Normandy and united the two crowns. 

The joy of victory was soon turned to mourning. 
On the homeward journey, Prince William, the heir 
to the throne, took ship with a young nobleman who The whiu 
had sought the honor of his company. The night kossetti. 
before sailing a banquet was given. The sailors 
drank too much of the festal wine, the vessel ran 
upon a rock, and all were lost. When the news was 
brought to the king, he fell fainting to the ground. 
Though he lived fifteen years after, he was never 
seen to smile again. 

Henry did what he might to secure the succession 
to his daughter Matilda, and obliged the barons to 



64 Foreign Kings 

take oath to receive her as queen. To strengthen 
her cause in Normandy, she was married to Godfrey, 
Count of Anjou, the most powerful vassal of France. 
The marriage was unpopular in England, however, 
and the barons protested that they owed no alle- 
giance to the foreigner. 

Stephen (1135-1154)- — There was a rival claimant 
to the crown, Stephen of Blois, son of the Conquer- 
or's daughter Adela. 1 He was a dashing young 
prince, who had grown up at the English court, and 
his knightly ways had won him the favor of the peo- 
ple. When he came to London, demanding his 
rights, the citizens received him gladly, and declared 
him king. Stephen promised to uphold the good 
customs of Edward, and it was hoped that with a 
man on the throne the peace and order so necessary 
to trade might be maintained. The Londoners were 
soon undeceived. 

Stephen was good-humored and brave, but he 
lacked the energy necessary to enforce the law. 
The barons took advantage of the opportunity to 
add to their own power. "When the traitors per- 
men g t° Ve ceived that he was a mild man and soft and good 

and did no justice, then did they all wonder. They 

1 The Norman kings : — 

William I, 1066- 1087 



III I 

Robert William II, Henry I, 1100-1135 Adela, m. Stephen of Blois 
1087-1100 I 

Matilda, m. Geoffrey of Anjou Stephen, 11 35-1 154 

Henry II, 1154-1189 



The Conqueror s Sons 65 

had done homage to him and sworn oaths, but they 
held no faith ; for every powerful man built castles, 
and held them against the king, and they filled the 
land full of castles. . . . When the castles were 
made, they filled them with devils and evil men. 
Then took they those men that they imagined had 
any property, both by night and by day, peasant men 
and women, and put them in prison for their gold 
and silver, and tortured them with unutterable tor- 
ture. . . . Many thousands they killed with hunger; 
. . . and that lasted the nineteen winters while 
Stephen was king ; and ever it was worse and worse. 
. . . When the wretched men had no more to give, suffering of 

the people, 
they robbed and burned all the towns, so that thou 

mightest well go all a day's journey, and thou shouldst 
never find a man sitting in a town or the land tilled. 
Then was corn dear, and flesh, and cheese, and but- 
ter ; for there was none in the land. Wretched men 
died of hunger; some went seeking alms who at one 
while were rich men ; some fled out of the land." 

Civil War. — The wretched nation was soon plunged 
into civil war. In 1 137, David, king of Scotland, 
crossed the Border with an army, hoping to win the 
kingdom for his kinswoman, but he was driven back 
with heavy loss. Three years later Matilda came in 
person to claim the throne. The city of London, 
weary of Stephen's misrule, declared for her, and 
many of the great nobles, glad of any pretext for 
making war upon their sovereign, came to her aid. 
Stephen made but little headway against them. He 



66 Foreign Kings 

did not seek the support of the English as Henry 
had done, but foolishly spent his treasure in hiring 
foreign troops. The king's men were even more 
cruel than the barons and made him many enemies. 
But Matilda was not more popular. No sooner 
was she crowned queen than she showed herself 
haughty toward her friends and vengeful toward her 
foes. London rose against her, and many of the 
nobles returned to Stephen's side. The Angevin 
cause seemed all but lost when a new champion ap- 
peared, — Matilda's son, the young Henry Plantagenet. 
Henry Plantagenet. — Though but nineteen years 
of age, this prince had already won reputation as a 
warrior. Landing in England in 1 153, he gathered 
his mother's allies about him and won so many 
castles that Stephen was forced to come to terms. 
The king had just lost his only son. He was easily 
induced to agree that if he were left in possession of 
the crown till his death, he would recognize Henry 
as his heir. So the long strife came to an end. 
Treaty of In the treaty of peace, Stephen was made to 

(1154). promise that he would undo the evil wrought in the 

land by the long years of anarchy. The estates forc- 
ibly seized under cover of war were to be restored 
to their rightful owners, and the rebel castles de- 
stroyed. The impoverished people were to be given 
cattle and tools with which to cultivate their fields. 
The courts of justice were to be restored, and men 
should be appointed sheriffs who would do justice to 
all without fear or favor. Thieves and robbers were 



The Conqueror 's Sons 67 

to be hanged. All troops must be disbanded and 

the soldiers set to work. Law and order were to be 

maintained throughout the realm, in order that men 

might go about their affairs in security, and the land 

grow prosperous once more. 

Before the year was out, Stephen died, broken by Death of 

Stephen. 
sorrow and distress, and Henry Plantagenet entered 

into undisputed possession of his inheritance. 



Books for Study- 
Freeman's Norman Conquest. 
Jewett, Story of the Normans, 

Suggestive Questions 

Section i. — Account for the weakness of the English under 
Ethelred the Unready. Describe the empire of Canute. In what 
respects was he a good king? Show that Edward the Confessor 
was an unworthy king. Who was the real ruler ? 

Section 2. — What was William of Normandy's claim to the 
English crown ? How did he win the throne ? How did he 
defend it ? Is your sympathy with William or with the English 
earls ? 

Section 3. — How did the Conqueror bring the lords and the 
church under his control ? How did he secure law and order ? 
What eifect had the Conquest on the serfs ? the towns ? 



Special Topics 

Normandy : Johnson, Normans in Europe. 

Lanfranc: Freeman, Norman Conquest^ Vol. IV., Ch. XIX. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE SHAPING OF THE NATION 

I came, your King ! 
Nor dwelt alone, like a soft lord of the East, 
In mine own hall, and sucking thro' fools 1 ears 
The flatteries of corruption — went abroad 
Thro' all my counties, spied my people's ways ; 
Yea, heard the churl against the baron — yea, 
And did him justice ; sat in mine own courts 
Judging my judges, that had found a King 
Who ranged confusions, made the twilight day, 
And struck a shape from out the vague, and law 
From madness. 

— Tennyson, Becket, Act I, Sc. 3. 

Section i. Henry's Reforms 

The First Plantagenet (1154-1189). —England's 
new king had shown already that he was very unlike 
his cousin Stephen. Determination and energy were 
the ruling traits of his character. Wise and cautious 
in forming his plans, in carrying them out he was 
painstaking and patient. Nevertheless at times he 
gave way to insane bursts of anger, when he would 
throw himself on the ground and roll about in rage, 
biting sticks and straws. His restlessness was pro- 
verbial, and it was commonly reported that he, never 
sat down save at table and when in the saddle. Even 
when at mass he busied himself in drawing pictures 

68 



DOMINIONS OF THE 

HOUSE OF ANJOU 

SCALE OF ENGLISH MILES 

Q 25 50 100 150 

Dominions of the House of Anjou. | | 




ENSMVED BY 80BMA 



Henry's Reforms 69 

or in talking in whispers with his neighbors. Like 
his great-grandfather, the Conqueror, he was passion- 
ately fond of hunting, but he had inherited also Henry 
Beauclerc's love of books, and he assembled at his 
court many wise and learned men. 

No monarch in Europe had so great an empire Henry's 
as this young king. From his father he inherited empir€ 
two French provinces, Anjou and Touraine. By 
his marriage with Eleanor of Guienne he obtained 
control of the lands south of the Loire. Through 
his mother he acquired England, Normandy, and 
Maine. He reasserted the old claim to the over- 
lordship of Scotland, and before his death he 
had added Brittany and Ireland to his posses- 
sions by conquest. Thus his empire extended from 
the Pyrenees on the south to the Scotch isles. But 
Henry's will was all that held his dominions together. 
They were divided in two by the Channel, and there 
was no common interest and no common speech. It 
is not strange that the young ruler was said to be the 
hardest-working man in the land. 

Restoration of Order. — The difficulties that Henry 
had to meet in England were great. He was deter- 
mined to carry out the pledges of the Treaty of 
Wallingford, but the lawless barons had no mind 

The Plantagenets : — 
Henry II, 1 1 54-1 189, m. Eleanor of Guienne, divorced wife of Louis VII 

„r— i 1 — i 

Henry, Richard I, Geoffrey, m. Constance John, m. Isabella of 
d. 1 183 1189-1199 d. 1186 I of Brittany 1199-1216 Angouleme 
Arthur, d. 1203 



;o 



The Shaping of the Nation 



Plans of 
reforms. 



Thomas 
Becket. 



Tennyson, 
Becket. 



to submit to his rule, and it cost him a hard struggle 
to get possession of their strongholds, many of which 
he then destroyed. Finally there was peace in the 
land, and Henry could turn now to his plans for pro- 
viding for the needs of the country with its increasing 
population and growing trade. It was at this time 
that he formed the habit, which he never abandoned, 
of constantly moving from place to place to see for 
himself how the people fared. 

Henry relied chiefly upon his own wisdom and 
energy in carrying out his plans of reform, but the 
work was too great for one man, and he knew how 
to make use of the ability of others. One of his 
most faithful helpers was Richard de Lucy, to whom 
the king himself gave the name of " the Loyal.'* 
The greatest of all the royal ministers, however, was 
Thomas Becket. He was of humble birth, the son 
of a citizen of London, but within a few months after 
he entered Henry's service he stood first in the king's 
confidence. His brilliant and attractive qualities won 
Henry's love, and for several years the two young 
men worked together in the closest friendship. 

Reforms in the Courts. — There was much need of 
reform in the shire courts when Henry came to the 
throne. It was difficult to find out just what the law 
was, the rules were very complicated, and often the 
Norman judges could not speak the language of the 
people who appeared before them. A poor ignorant 
man had therefore little chance of getting justice. 
Henry continued the practice begun by his grand- 



Henry's Reforms yi 

father of sending well-trained men about the country 
to try important cases, but after a time he decided 
that it would be a good plan to call in men of the 
district to aid these judges. Thus if a crime had 
been committed, a certain number of the dwellers in jury trial 
the neighborhood were ordered to present the matter 
to the judges and declare. whom they thought guilty. 
They were obliged to take an oath to speak the 
truth, and hence they were called jurors, from jurare, 
a Latin word meaning to swear. Or if two men 
disputed about the boundary between their lands, 
some of the neighbors were summoned to hear all the 
evidence, and decide where the line ran. They, too, 
were bound by oath to decide justly. The decision 
of the jurors was called a verdict, or "truly said." 

This method of trying cases was a great improve- 
ment over the old. A man's right depended now 
upon the careful decision of his neighbors, not upon 
the opinion of a judge who might be bribed or over- 
awed. Then, too, Englishmen had now a chance to 
gain experience in deciding questions of public in- 
terest. This did not please them, for it took a great 
deal of time, but the discipline was good and fitted 
them to govern themselves. In these reforms of 
Henry Plantagenet we have the beginning of our 
present system of jury trial. 

Changes in the Army. — At this time the kings 
of England did not have armies such as there are 
now, composed of soldiers who enlist for a term of 
years, and are always ready for war. There were, 



7 2 



The SJi aping of the Nation 



The feudal 
levy and the 
shire levy. 



Scutage. 



however, two forces upon which Henry could call. 
One was made up of the great landowners, the 
barons and their followers, fighting on horseback. 
The other resembled the shire levy of Alfred's time. 
It included the men of small estates, who were ex- 
pected to defend 
the country against 
foreign invasion, or 
to aid the king in 
putting down a re- 
bellion. The levy of 
the barons was the 
more efficient force, 
but there was al 
ways the chance 
that it might turn 
against the king 
instead of following 
him. 

Accordingly 
Henry adopted a 
plan by which he 
could weaken the 
great landowners 
and at the same 
time obtain money to hire soldiers upon whom he 
could rely. He offered to excuse the followers of the 
barons from going with him to war on condition of 
their paying him a sum of money. This payment 
was called scutage, or shield money. The barons 




A Knight of the Time of Henry 
the Second. 



Henry s Failures 73 

were glad to accept Henry's terms, for it was bur- 
densome to serve in the levy, and as time went on, 
they and their followers lost their skill in fighting, 
which was a good thing for the country, as they 
were apt to be quarrelsome. 

Section 2. Henry's Failures 

Henry and the Church. — The king was anxious 
to get some control over the clergy. At this time 
the term " cleric " had come to include many classes 
that have now no connection with the Church. If 
a man did not want to live by fighting or by work- 
ing with his hands, or if he were clever and wished 
to use his brains, he became what was known as a 
clerk. As a result there were many in orders who 
were not good men, and sometimes they committed 
crimes. By the custom of the day such men could 
be tried only in Church courts, and these could not Trial of 

clerks. 

condemn a man to death. In the first eight years 
of Henry's reign one hundred murders were com- 
mitted by clerks who were punished simply by being 
shut up in a monastery. 

Henry thought this state of affairs bad for the 
country and for the Church, and he decided that 
such men ought to be tried and punished in the 
ordinary courts. As he knew that the Church would 
oppose him in this matter, he made his friend 
Thomas Becket Archbishop of Canterbury, that he 
might have his help. 



74 The Shaping of the Nation 

The Quarrel between Henry and Thomas. — But 
Thomas disappointed the king. Once archbishop, 
he took up the cause of the clergy, and would not 
agree to the changes which Henry proposed. He 
thought the good of the Church required that it 
should be independent of the king. Moreover, he 
was not sure that Henry would always act justly. 
The Church was wealthy, and Henry wanted money, 
and he was not above making use of a pretext for 
plunder. There was a terrible quarrel, and the 
archbishop in fear of his life fled to France. After 
a few years a kind of reconciliation was patched up, 
the kiss of peace was exchanged, and Thomas re- 
turned to England. But he still opposed the king, 
and one day Henry fell into a violent rage, and 
cried, " What a pack of fools and cowards I have 
nourished in my house that not one of them will 
avenge me of this one upstart clerk ! " 

Four knights who heard this took Henry at his 
word. At once they left the court and hastened 
to Canterbury. They sought their victim in the 
cathedral. " Where is the traitor, Thomas Becket?" 
cried one. " Here am I, no traitor to the king, but 
a priest," answered Thomas, descending the steps of 
the choir to meet his foes. A few blows, and the 
archbishop lay dead on the ground. " Let us away, 
knights ; he will rise no more," was the triumphant 
cry of the murderers as they fled from the spot. 

The Rebellion against Henry. — All Christendom 
cried out with horror at this deed. Thomas dead 



Henry s Fai hires 75 

was more dangerous than Thomas alive. He was 
canonized by the Church, and became the most popu- 
lar of English saints. Henry's hope of reforming the 




The Murder of Becket. 

law was at an end. He did his best to clear him- 
self of any share in the murder, and withdrew to Henry in 
Ireland with the idea of conquering the island as a 



y6 The Shaping of the Nation 

peace-offering to the pope. A band of knights from 
the Welsh border led by the Earl of Pembroke, nick- 
named Strongbow, had already done something to 
bring the country under English rule, and Henry 
hoped with speed to complete their work, but little 




The Penance of Henry the Second. 

had been accomplished when bad news summoned 
him home. The barons, always impatient of Henry's 
stern rule, saw their opportunity in his quarrel with 
the Church. Led by the king's own graceless sons, 
and aided by the Scotch and French kings, they rose 
in rebellion. But Henry was too strong for them. 



Henry's Failures 77 

Richard de Lucy made a bold stand against the 
rebels, while his master, to conciliate his subjects, 
went to Canterbury to do penance for the murder Henry's 
of Thomas. He submitted to be scourged by the 
monks, and spent the night fasting and praying at 
the martyr's shrine. Almost in that very hour the 
Scotch army suffered a great defeat, and at about 
the same time the fleet of the French was wrecked 

rr i t-» r i 111 End of the 

oft the coast. Before the year was out the whole rising, n 74 . 
rebellion was at an end. 

The End of the Reign. — Henry was not happy in 
his family relations. His wife was a high-spirited, un- 
principled woman much older than himself, whom 
he had married simply for the sake of her broad 
lands of Guienne and whom he now neglected. She 
had much influence over her sons and abetted them 
in their rebellion against the king, and after the ris- 
ing was put down, Henry shut her up in prison, where 
she remained until his death. Toward his children 
Henry was ever a loving and indulgent father, and 
soon generously pardoned their undutiful behavior. 
Nothing could win them, however. They desired Henry's 
a larger share in the government, and the older 
ones were jealous of John, the youngest, to whom 
Henry showed especial affection. Trouble broke out 
from time to time, and at last, Richard, the heir, con- 
spired with the French king against his father and 
invaded Maine. Henry was defeated. Broken- 
hearted and sick unto death, he was forced to beg for 
mercy. At his own request he was shown a list of 



rebellious 
sons. 



Henry's rule. 



78 The Shaping of the Nation 

Henry's those in arms with his rebellious heir. When he 

saw the name of his dearly loved son John at the 
head of the list, he turned his face to the wall, cry- 
ing, " Now you have said enough. Let all the rest 
go as it will,. I care no more for myself nor for the 
world." A little later he died, muttering, "Shame, 
shame on a conquered king." 

character of Henry was a hard master, and although his sub- 
jects respected him, they bore him little love. Never- 
theless, he was the kind of king that England needed. 
He forced high and low alike to keep the law, and 
since his stern rule recognized no distinction between 
Norman and Saxon, they also began to forget their 
differences, and thought of themselves as English- 
men suffering under the heavy hand of the alien 
Angevin. 

Section 3. The Reign of a Knight Errant 

Richard the Lion-Hearted (11 89-1 199). — Richard I 
was born in England, but he was scarcely an English 
king, for he spent all but seven months of his ten 
years' reign on the Continent. Before he came to 
the throne he passed his time in fighting and adven- 
ture, and he did not change his ways after he became 
king. In appearance he was like his Norse ances- 
tors, — huge of frame, with long legs and golden hair. 
He was loyal to his friends, and sometimes he was 
generous in forgiving his foes, but he was cruel and 
selfish, and he never troubled himself about his duty 



The Reign of a Knight Errant 



79 



to his subjects. His only thought was to get as much 
money from them as he could. 

The Crusades. — During the twelfth and thirteenth 
centuries the " Crusades," or wars of the Cross, were 
being fought. In those days people were fond of 
going on pilgrimages, sometimes to Rome or to 
Santiago, and best of all to 
Jerusalem. But at about 
the time when the Nor- 
mans invaded England, 
the Holy City fell into the 
hands of the Turks, who 
were very cruel and abused 
the poor pilgrims. When 
tales of what the Turks 
were doing came back to 
western Europe, people de- 
termined to rescue the 
Holy Sepulchre from the 
power of the infidels, as the Turks were called. 
Kings and peasants, men, women, and even little 
children, started for far Jerusalem, wearing a red 
cross as a sign of the holy war in which they were 
engaged. During the next two hundred years there 
were many crusades, but little that was lasting was 
accomplished. 

Richard's Crusade. — Before he came to the throne scott, 
Richard had made up his mind to lead a new crusade 
to the Holy Land. An enterprise of this kind fell 
in with his love of adventure and fighting ; then, too, 




A Crusader. 



8o 



The Shaping of the Nation 



crusade. 



Richard's 
failure. 



he was feeling some regret at the way he had treated 
his father. Richard had to resort to many devices 
preparations to get the money for his expedition. He levied as 
heavy taxes as he dared. From the Jews he extorted 
great sums of money in return for his protection. 
To the towns he sold charters giving them the right 
to manage their own affairs. He even declared that 
he would mortgage London if he could find a pur- 
chaser rich enough. Then he set out for the Holy 
Land. Richard did not achieve much on this crusade. 
Although he reached the Holy City, he was unable 
to capture it. He took his defeat much to heart. 
When shown the city from afar, he refused to gaze 
upon it, and muffled his face in his cloak, saying, 
" My eyes shall never behold it, if my arm may not 
reconquer it." At length he was forced to abandon 
the attempt and return to Europe. 

On his way home Richard was wrecked on the 
Adriatic coast. While trying to make his way over- 
land in disguise, he fell into the power of the emperor, 
who kept him in prison until Eleanor could raise the 
money to ransom him. When Richard was at last 
set free, he hastened home just in time to save his 
crown ; for Prince John was attempting to get himself 
made king, telling the people that his brother would 
never return. 

The End of Richard's Reign. — Richard spent the 
rest of his life on the Continent fighting against the 
French king. To protect Normandy he built a won- 
derful castle on the Seine. He called it his " Saucy 



Richard a 

captive, 

1192-1194. 



The Loss of Normandy 81 

Castle," and he was very proud of it. When Philip 
said, " I will take it though its walls were of iron," 
Richard answered, " I will hold it though its walls 
were of butter." 

As usual, Richard was in need of money, and when 
he heard that a wonderful treasure had been discov- 
ered on the lands of one of his French vassals, he 
asserted a claim to it. On being refused he besieged 
this vassal's castle. One of the little garrison watched 
all day, defending himself with a frying-pan as a 
shield, on the chance of a shot at Richard, and 
finally he succeeded. The king's last act was to 
pardon the archer who shot him. Richard's chief 
merit as king of England is that he left his subjects 
very much alone, thus giving them some chance to 
practise self-government. 

Section 4. The Loss of Normandy 

Wicked King John. — At last John had gained his 
wish ; he was king. He had proved himself a dis- 
loyal son and a treacherous brother ; he was now to 
show how unfit he was to rule. Of all England's 
kings he is, perhaps, the worst. Yet he was very 
attractive in manner, and he won the love of many 
men and women, who generally had to suffer for 
their, devotion to him. 

John's title to the throne was not undisputed, for 
the son of his elder brother Geoffrev was alive, little ^?" rof 

J Brittany. 

Arthur of Brittany, and his claim to succeed Richard 



Shakespeare, 
King John. 



82 



The Shaping of the Nation 



was supported by Philip of France, ready as usual 
to make trouble. But John had a wise adviser in 
his mother, Eleanor, who was very active and clear- 
headed in spite of her seventy years, and at first he 




Castle of Falaise. 

Where Arthur was imprisoned. 



Death of 
Arthur. 



seemed quite secure in his possessions. The trouble 
that soon arose was of his own making. 

The Loss of Normandy. — John encroached on the 
rights of some of his French vassals, and they re- 
belled against him. This gave Philip a chance to 
interfere, and before the matter was settled Arthur, 
who had fallen into his uncle's hands, mysteriously 
disappeared. Every one believed, and probably with 



The Loss of Normandy 83 

justice, that this was John's work. Philip determined 
to call the king to account, and invaded Normandy. 
John was so hated by his vassals that they would not 
support him, and he wandered helplessly about, doing 
nothing. At length Richard's " Saucy Castle " fell 
before Philip's attacks. A month later Eleanor died, 
and with her death John's cause was lost. By 1204 
Normandy and Maine, Anjou and Touraine, had 
passed into the hands of the French king. Of 
Henry IPs great continental empire nothing was 
left but the lands south of the Loire. 

The loss of the French provinces was a gain to 
England. The king could no longer play off Nor- 
man against Saxon, nor would he be tempted to neg- 
lect English interests for the sake of his foreign 
possessions, for England was now his chief concern. 
The barons also who had formerly held estates on 
both sides the Channel were forced now to throw in 
their lot with England, and became for the first time 
truly Englishmen. 

Books for Study 

Stubbs, Early Plantagenets. 

Mrs. Green, Henry the Second. 

Archer and Kingsford, The Story of the Crusades. 

Lawless, The Story of Ireland. 

Suggestive Questions 

Section i . — Describe the character of Henry the Second. 
Mark on a map the different parts of Henry's empire. Describe 
a juror. Why did Henry like the system of taking scutage ? 



84 The Shaping of the Nation 

Section 2. — What were Henry's reasons for wishing to get 
control over the clergy ? Give the causes for the rebellion 
against Henry. What did Henry do for England ? 

Section 3. — Describe the Crusades. What kind of a king 
was Richard ? 

Section 4. — What was Arthur's claim to the throne ? 
Give the causes for the loss of Normandy. 

Special Topics 

Strongbow's attempt to conquer Ireland : Lawless, Ireland. 
Richard's crusade : Archer and Kingsford, The Crusades. 
The Story of Arthur : Stubbs, Early Plantagenets, Shake- 
speare, King John. 



CHAPTER V 

THE CHARTER AND THE NATION 

This England never did (nor never shall) 
Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror, 
But when it first did help to wound itself. 

— Shakespeare, Kingjohn, Act V, Sc. 7. 

Simon of the mountain strong, 
Flower of knightly chivalry, 
Thou who death and deadly wrong 
Barest, making England free. 

— Contemporary hymn translated from 
the Latin by G. G. A.M. 

Section i. Winning the Great Charter 

The Quarrel with the Pope. — In 1205 the Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury died, and it became necessary 
to choose some one to succeed him. Both the king 
and the monks of Canterbury claimed the right of 
doing this. A dispute arose. Appeals to the Pope, 
Innocent III, resulted in the appointment of Stephen 
Langton, an English cardinal, distinguished for his 
goodness and wisdom. John did not like the turn 
matters had taken, and refused to allow Stephen 
Langton to land in England. Accordingly Inno- 
cent declared an interdict against the country. This The inter- 
meant that the clergy were forbidden to perform the 

85 



86 



The Charter and the Natio7i 



Excommuni- 
cation of the 
king. 



John's sub- 
mission to 
Rome. 12 13- 



usual offices. The churches were closed; no one 
could be married; the dead were buried without any 
service. Of course this was very hard on the people, 
and the Pope hoped that their sufferings and discon- 
tent would force the king to yield. But the misery 
of his subjects mattered little to John. Far from 
yielding, he persecuted the clergy who heeded the 
interdict. 

Thereupon the Pope tried another measure. He 
excommunicated the king; that is, deprived him of 
the right of receiving the holy communion. An 
excommunicated man was outside the Church, and 
good Christians were expected to avoid him. But 
John met the Pope with defiance. He continued to 
plunder the Church, and an ecclesiastic who withdrew 
from his service was punished by being crushed to 
death under a cope of lead. 

Finally the Pope took the last step, and threatened 
to depose John and give his kingdom to another. 
This brought John to terms. He knew that the 
French king would be only too glad to carry out the 
papal command. He knew also that his subjects 
hated him, and would give him little support. The 
conditions imposed by Innocent were very heavy, 
but John accepted everything. Taking off his crown, 
the king laid it at the feet of the Pope's representa- 
tive, and agreed to pay tribute to Rome. He was, 
of course, required to receive Stephen Langton, and 
to restore to the Church the plunder he had taken. 

The Rising of the Barons. — The king had made 



Whining the Great Charter 87 

his peace with the Pope, but worse difficulties con- 
fronted him. For eight years now John had spent 
most of his time in England, unlike his father and 
brother, who were but little in the country. The 
English had learned how terrible it was to have a 
bad king. John plundered them of their lands and John's mis- 

government. 

their money. He insulted their wives and daughters 
and put their children to death. That the nation 
had borne so long with John shows the strength of 
the monarchy. Secret discontent now changed to 
open rebellion. The new archbishop, Stephen Lang- 
ton, proved a great help to the cause. Under the 
leadership of this patriotic man, the barons united 
in demanding of the king guarantees against future 
wrongdoing. John turned this way and that to avoid 
yielding. Finally, when deserted by all save his fam- 
ily and his hired soldiers, he agreed to meet the reb- 
els to consider their demands. The meeting was on 
the Thames, at a place called Runnymede. There 
was little discussion, for John was beaten and he 
knew it. On the 15th of June, 121 5, the king signed signing of 
the Great Charter, giving the barons all they asked, charter. 

The Great Charter. — Many copies were made of 
the agreement between the king and the barons, for Yonge, The 
it was to be published in every town in the land. In ^rtwef. 
London, at the British Museum, one copy is still 
preserved. It has been injured by fire and time, 
but the seal of King John still hangs from the 
parchment. 

Henceforth the king was not to do as he pleased 



88 



The Charter and the Nation 



with the lives and property of his subjects. No man 
was to be imprisoned save after a fair trial and by 
the judgment of his fellows. Nor was the king to 
take the people's money without the consent of the 
Great Council. This gave the nation a hold over its 
rulers ; for if a king was unwilling to govern for the 
good of his subjects and thought simply of his own 













Aat ej*u&£<tut Mimio m^SejWar.tiec (up eum tfcwf n«c Att eunv «»tfemttfwjtj> ft 
fo CN ■»&&£ ***** life* Mtpfeo i?)uoc^^v«^vi^Lier 



mo eectmo. 



Specimen of the Great Charter. 



Renewal of 
strife. 



selfish interests, the Council could refuse to grant him 
supplies. The liberties which the barons wrung 
from John are the foundation of English and Ameri- 
can freedom to-day. A beginning only had been 
made, and there would be many a hard struggle yet 
before the Charter was truly the law of the land. 

John himself had no thought of keeping his agree- 
ment. At first he gave way to senseless rage, rolling 



John. 



Simon de Montj ort 89 

on the ground and biting his fingers after the manner 
of his Plantagenet ancestors. Then he fell to plotting 
how he might outwit his foes. He quickly called 
together his hired soldiers and turned upon the 
barons. Taken by surprise, they scattered before 
him ; but they soon made a stand, and in despair of 
coming to any agreement with this faithless prince, 
decided to call in the French king; better the rule 
of a foreigner than of such a man as John. For- 
tunately at this juncture John died suddenly of a Death of 
fever brought on by exposure and greediness. 

Section 2. Simon de Montfort, the National 
Leader 

Accession of Henry III (1216-1272). — It was well 
for the country that John died when he did ; otherwise 
England's independence might have been lost. Now 
all was changed. John's only child was but nine 
years of age, and it might be hoped that when he 
was old enough to rule he would make a better king 
than his father had done. In the meantime the 

John, m. Isabella of Angouleme 
1199-1216 I 



I I I . 

Henry III, m. Eleanor of Jane, m. Alexander II Eleanor, m. Simon 

1216-1272 I Provence of Scotland de Montfort 



I I 

Edward I, m. Eleanor of Castille, Margaret, m. Alexander III 

1272-1307 I of Scotland 

Edward II, m. Isabella of France 
1307-1327 



90 



The Charter and the Nation 



The work of 
the friars. 



barons could govern England. So little Henry was 
crowned king and made to sign the Charter, and the 
Earl of Pembroke, a very noble and powerful baron, 
was put in control of the government. During the 
next few years there was peace, and people hoped 
that England's evil days were past, but in this they 
were mistaken. 

Gray Brothers and Black Brothers. — While the 
barons were still carrying on the government for 
the boy-king, men in strange attire wandering about 
the streets began to attract the attention of the towns- 
people. Barefooted and clad in gray or black gar- 
ments, they made their way two by two into the worst 
parts of the towns, even seeking out the dreary 
lepers' quarter. These Begging Friars, as they came 
to be called, were men who had vowed to spend their 
lives in the service of Christ. Unlike the older brother- 
hoods, the followers of St. Dominic and St. Francis 
did not shut themselves up in monasteries, but 
wandered from place to place, living upon what 
they could beg, and teaching the ignorant, tending 
the sick, and preaching wherever men would gather 
to listen. Mostly they frequented the populous cen- 
tres, such as London, the capital, Oxford and Cam- 
bridge, where colleges of learning were growing up, the 
seaports, and the great yearly fairs. The influence 
of these preachers of the market-place was tremen- 
dous. Not merely did they strive to save men's souls, 
but they also taught them how to care for their bodies. 
Moreover, they wrote the popular songs, and carried 



Simon de Montfort 



91 



the news of the day from village to village. They 
set people to thinking and talking about what was 
happening in England. Thus they did for the thir- 
teenth century what the newspaper and public meet- 
ing are doing in the nineteenth. 

Henry's Misrule. — When the king was twenty-five 
years old he made up his mind to rule as he chose, 
and he sent away those who 
had been governing for him. 
Henry was not a wicked 
man like his father. He 
resembled Edward the Con- 
fessor more than any other 
ruler that England has had. 
Perhaps he took Edward as 
his model, for he admired 
him greatly, naming his eld- 
est son after the Saxon 
king, and rebuilding in his 
memory Westminster 
Abbey, the most beautiful 
of the English cathedrals. 
But Henry was not a good 
king. He was weak and 
selfish. His tastes were 
extravagant and he was con- 
stantly asking money of the 
people. Indeed, he extorted 
it on every pretext. When his eldest son, Prince The royal 

J l extrava- 

Edward, was born, he forced all to send him a present, gance. 




Henry the Third. 



Q2 



The Charter and the Nation 



so that one old monk said, " God gave us this child, 
but the king sells him to us." Henry was like Edward 




Westminster Abbey. 



The in preferring foreigners to Englishmen, and all the 

foreigners. fft ces at court were fin e d with Frenchmen, upon 
whom the king squandered vast sums of money. 



union de Mofitfoi't 93 

Simon de Montfort. — The barons were the natural 
leaders of the nation in opposing the king, but for a 
long time they seemed unable to do anything. They 
tried to make terms with Henry. When he asked 
for money, they replied that he should have it if he 
would sign the Great Charter and send away the 
Frenchmen. Henry was always ready to promise Henry's 
what was asked, but when he once had the money, promises, 
on some pretext or other he would break his word. 
People came to lose all faith in him. They said, 
11 The king breaks everything, — the laws, his good 
faith, and his promises." 

Strange to say, the man who finally roused the 
barons to action was one of the hated foreigners. 
Simon de Montfort was a Frenchman by birth, but 
he had inherited a title and large estates in England. 
He was a great warrior and a man of strong charac- 
ter. At first Henry showed de Montfort much favor, 
even allowing him to marry his sister Eleanor. But 
after a time the two men fell out. It was then that 
Simon left the court and joined cause with the barons. 

Power taken from the King. — At length matters 
came to a crisis. Henry had foolishly pledged himself 
to give the Pope a large sum of money, and he called 
the barons together, and told them that they must 
get it for him. This the barons refused outright to 
do. A little later they met by themselves at Oxford, The Mad 

, . . . . _ . Parliament 

and proceeded to draw up a scheme for governing and the 
the country, called the Provisions of Oxford. They oxford* 1*258. 
appointed a committee of barons to rule for Henry 



94 



The CJiarter and the Ni 



as though he were a child, and they told him if he did 
not agree to this they would depose him. Of turse 
Henry yielded, — he always did, — bur he had no 
intention of keeping his promise. Tne barons' meet- 
ing at Oxford was nicknamed by the king's friends, 
the Mad Parliament. This is almost the first time 
that the word Parliament was used, but it soon 
became the common term for the Great Council. 

The Barons' War. — For the moment the barons had 
everything their own way, and it speedily became 
plain that they meant to make a selfish use of their 
success, for nothing was done to improve the condi- 
tion of the people. 

Earl Simon said this was wrong, declaring that the 
liberties which had been wrung from the king should 
be shared by the whole nation. Those whom he 
opposed, jealous of his growing popularity, taunted 
him with courting the favor of the common people 
to get himself made king. Henry saw his oppor- 
tunity in this division among his foes, and declared 
that he would no longer abide by the Provisions of 
Oxford. Civil strife seemed imminent. In a last 
effort to avert bloodshed the king of France, good 
Louis IX, sought to arbitrate between the two 
parties. All in vain : Simon, supported by the people, 
refused to accept a decision which was wholly favor- 
able to the king. War broke out, and a great battle 
Lewes, 1264. was fought at Lewes, where the royal side was 
defeated, and the king and Prince Edward were 
taken prisoners. 



Quarrels 
among the 
barons. 



Simon de Montfort 95 

The Rule of Simon de Montfort. — The victory of 
Lewes placed de Montfort in control of the govern- 
ment. " Now England breathes in the hope of lib- 
erty," sang a gray brother. All the popular elements 
in the nation, the Church, the towns, the universities, 
were on his side, but the barons, jealous of his power, 
began to draw away from him. In a despairing 
effort to rally the strength of his party he took a 
step which will make his name ever famous : he 
called a Parliament where, for the first time, men DeMontfort's 
representing the towns and the shires sat with the I2 6 5 . 
barons to discuss the affairs of the country. 

But Earl Simon had little time to show what he 
would do. Many of the barons went over to the 
royal side. Prince Edward succeeded in escaping 
from his captors and at once put himself at the 
head of a force which he led against the earl. Near 
the little village of Evesham a second battle was Evesham, 
fought. De Montfort found himself trapped between 
two armies. He watched for a moment the advance 
of the force led by his nephew, Edward. " By the 
arm of St. James," he cried, "they come on in wise 
fashion, but they learnt it of me." He bade his com- 
rades seek safety in flight, but they refused, not 
caring to live if he died. Desperately fighting, the 
little band fell one by one till the earl was left alone. 
Almost he had fought his way through when a lance- 
thrust brought him to the ground. With the words, 
" It is God's grace," his brave spirit passed away. 

After the death of de Montfort resistance to the 



9 6 



The Charter and the Nation 



king ceased. Henry had learned that he might go 
too far, and some of the reforms which the earl had 
desired were carried out. A few years later Henry's 
long reign, one of the longest in English history, 
came to a peaceful end. 

Section 3. The Rule of a National King 

The Greatest of the Plantagenets (1 272-1 307).— 

There was much rejoicing when Edward the First 

came to the throne, 
for now England had 
a king who was 
neither Norman nor 
Angevin, but Eng- 
lish, English in name 
and English at heart. 
The young king was 
very unlike his father 
and grandfather. He 
was honorable and 
high-minded, and his 
favorite device, "keep 
troth," was a faithful 
record of his life. To his most unworthy father he 
had shown himself a loyal son, and his devotion to 
his wife was the marvel of his age. A true Plantage- 
net in his masterful ways and fiery bursts of pas- 
sion, he could nevertheless say with truth in his 
old age, " No man ever asked mercy of me and was 
refused." He was national in aim and spirit even 




Coronation of Edward the First. 

Illuminated letter. 



The Rule of a National King 97 

though he spent the later years of his reign in try- 
ing to stamp out the independence of the Scotch 
nation, and the worst act of his life, the expulsion 
of the Jews from England in 1290, was done at the 
wish of his subjects and to his own loss. When all 
is said, he remains one of the noblest of English 
kings, the first since the Conquest who loved his 
people and sought their love in return. 

How Edward kept Order in England. — When Ed- 
ward came to the throne, lawlessness reigned. The 
peace of whole shires was disturbed by the feuds 
of some of the great earls, and many of the lesser condition of 
nobles had turned highwaymen to prey upon the 
rich caravans of the traders passing from market 
town to market town. In the forests lurked bands 
of outlaws, and a man took his life in his hands in 
venturing forth to the neighboring village. Nor 
was he sure of safety within the walls of his own 
city. On one occasion a band of knights disguised 
as monks introduced themselves into the great fair 
at Boston. At night, when all were sleeping, they 
rose, slaughtered the merchants, burned the town, 
and departed with an immense booty. 

Edward labored unceasingly to put a stop to 
these outrages. Every man between fifteen years Arming the 
and sixty was commanded to provide himself with peope * 
armor and weapons according to his wealth, the 
poorest with simple bow and arrows. The gates of 
the towns were to be kept closed from sun-setting 
to sun-rising, and at each guards were to watch all 



9 8 



The Charter and the Nation 



Edward 
consults the 
people. 



Separation 
of the two 
houses. 



night long. For the safety of travellers, bushes and 
trees were cleared away for two hundred feet on 
either side of the highway. So vigorous and suc- 
cessful was the king in repressing violence and wrong- 
doing that a popular song of the time complained that 
it was impossible any longer for a man to whip his 
children — he was at once punished as a breaker of 
the peace. 

The Model Parliament. — Although Edward had 
fought against Simon de Montfort, yet he followed 
his example in many ways. He, too, saw the advan- 
tage of consulting with the people, and from the 
beginning of his reign he often called together men 
who could speak for whatever class was especially 
interested in the matter in hand. Finally, in 1295, 
when trouble was brewing at home and abroad, he 
took an important step. Declaring in words forever 
famous, that "what touches all must be agreed to 
by all," he summoned a meeting of the great barons 
and bishops and with them two knights from every 
shire and two citizens from every town. Unlike de 
Montfort's Parliament, which included merely the 
great earl's followers, this assembly represented the 
whole nation. Edward's work was lasting; and from 
that day to this a legislature in which the people 
are represented has been a recognized part of Eng- 
land's government. The Parliament of 1295 is called 
the Model Parliament, so few have been the changes 
since then; the chief being that about the year 1332 
the barons and bishops began to sit by themselves and 



The Rule of a National King 99 

were called the House of Lords, while the shire and 
town representatives formed the House of Commons. 

The Confirmation of the Charters (1297). — Edward 
was as sparing in his personal expenses as his father 
had been extravagant, but the wars in which he 
engaged cost a great deal of money. The people 
grumbled at the heavy taxes and showed increasing 
unwillingness to give supplies. Matters came to a 
crisis when the king demanded a grant for an ex- 
pedition against the French king, who had invaded 
Gascony. The clergy declared they would not pay Edward and 
taxes to the king, who was only a layman. To this ecler £y- 
Edward retorted that if they would not pay taxes he 
would not protect them. Thereupon the clergy gave 
way and granted all the king demanded. 

But soon there was more trouble. The rebellious 
feeling of the country was shown in the barons' re- 
fusal to go to war against the French king. Re- The king's 

, , t-, , , . quarrel with 

monstrances were in vain, and when Edward turned the barons, 
upon the Earl of Hereford, one of the greatest of 
the nobles, with the words, " By God, Sir Earl, you 
shall either go or hang," he was met by the answer, 
" By that same oath, Sir King, I will neither go nor 
hang." The barons separated without giving the 
king any aid. Thereupon Edward in his extremity 
seized the wool of the merchants, but this lawless act 
aroused such a storm of indignation that the king was 
forced to give way, and reconfirm the Great Charter 
with additional clauses making it unlawful for him to 
tax the nation without the consent of Parliament. 



100 



The Charter and the Nation 



Castle 
building. 



The Prince 
of Wales. 



Section 4. The Beginnings of Great Britain 

The Conquest of the Welsh. — Edward engaged in 
many wars, but at least his purpose was more sensi- 
ble than that of his predecessors. Instead of wast- 
ing England's strength in a foolish attempt to build 
up an impossible kingdom on the Continent, he con- 
tented himself with trying to unite all the island of 
Britain under one rule. In the secluded valleys 
among their mountains the northern Welsh had suc- 
ceeded in keeping their independence. They paid 
little heed to laws, and were constantly fighting 
among themselves or with the English of the Border. 
Edward thought it would be well for all if they could 
be brought under control. This was not easy, for 
the Welsh mountains were like natural fortresses, 
but after two attempts the king was successful. 
Following the example of William the Conqueror in 
England, he built strong castles, such as Harlech, 
Carnarvon, and Conway, to keep the people in order; 
while to conciliate them he said that his infant son 
should be their prince. In this way it has come to 
pass that the heir to the English crown usually bears 
the title of Prince of Wales. 

Edward and the Scotch Succession. — Edward now 
turned his attention to another part of the island. In 
1286 the Scotch king, Alexander III, was killed by 
the plunge of his horse over a cliff. The next in 
succession was the late king's granddaughter, a little 
child, popularly known as the Maid of Norway. Ed- 




ENGRAVED BY BORMAY & CO., 



The Beginnings of Great Britain 



IOI 



ward, watchful of the interests of England, arranged 
a marriage between the little princess and his son 
and heir, Prince Edward. Such a union would have 
been good for both countries, but the plan was 
brought to naught by the untimely death of the 
Maid. There was no one now with a clear right to 
the Scotch throne, 
but thirteen persons 
of the royal line put 
in a claim, and a 
bloody contest 
seemed on the point 
of breaking out. To 
avert this, some of 
the Scotch barons 
appealed to Edward 
as a good and wise 
king to say who had 
the best right to rule. 
But the English king 
refused to interfere 
unless the Scots 
would agree to rec- 
ognize him as over- 
lord. Ever since the 
days of Edward, the 
son of Alfred, Eng- 
land had put forward this claim, but the Scotch had 
generally denied it. Now in their need they agreed 
to what Edward wished. Thereupon he settled the 




Coronation Chair of the Kings of 
England. 

Beneath the seat is the " Stone of Destiny." 



Edward 
recognized as 
overlord of 
the Scots. 



02 



The Charter and the Nation 



Balliol 

crowned 

king. 



succession quarrel by giving his decision in favor of 
John Balliol. The Scotch accepted Balliol as king, 
and he was crowned at Scone, seated on the Stone of 
Destiny. This was simply a rough block of com- 
mon limestone, but the belief was that it was the 
stone which served Jacob as a pillow, when in a 
dream he saw the ladder and the angels. Upon it 
the Scotch kings always sat when crowned and 
consecrated. 

Edward's Conquest of Scotland. — Edward regarded 
his overlordship as something more than a mere title, 
and he believed that he had now a right to interfere 
in the affairs of Scotland. But the Scotch king and 
his subjects thought otherwise, and when Edward 
commanded Balliol to appear before him to answer 
a charge of misdoing, he met with a refusal. There- 
upon he declared war against Balliol and led an 
army over the Border. Taking the Scotch by sur- 
Dunbar, 1296. prise, he inflicted a severe defeat upon them at Dun- 
bar. Balliol was deposed, and Englishmen were put 
over the country. Then Edward returned home, 
taking with him the Stone of Scone. It was placed 
under the coronation chair of the kings of England, 
and there it still remains. 

William Wallace. — Edward meant to rule Scot- 
land wisely and justly, but the men that he left to 
govern for him behaved with such harshness that the 
people were goaded into rebellion. A leader was 
found in William Wallace, a Lowland knight, with 
wrongs of his own to avenge. Wallace was tall and 



Edward and 

Balliol 

quarrel. 



Henty, In 

Freedom's 
Cause. 




EN3RAVED BY BORMAY 4 



* The Beginnings of Great Britain 



103 



active, burning with anger against the English, and 
ready to fight till death for Scotland's independence. 
The English soldiers were principally horsemen in 
heavy armor, and it did not seem possible for the 
Scots fighting on foot and armed simply with pikes 




Stirling Castle. 



to make a stand against such a force, but fortunately 
their leader was a born general. 

At Stirling the two armies met. Wallace answered Stirling, 1297 
the English offers to treat with defiance. " We have 
come not to make peace, but to free our country." 
By a skilful move he succeeded in cutting the Eng- 



104 The Charter and the Nation 

lish force in two as it was crossing a narrow bridge, 
and won a complete victory. But the next year at 

Falkirk, 1298. Falkirk success turned the other way. Wallace had 
drawn up his men in hollow squares, and against the 
wall of spears the English horsemen dashed thenv 
selves in vain. But Edward was as good a general 
as his opponent. He sent forward his bowmen to 
break gaps in the Scotch ranks with the flight of 
their arrows. Then the horsemen rode in, cutting 
down the demoralized Scots with axe and lance. 
This defeat ended the rising. Wallace fled to the 
Highlands, remaining in hiding for several years. 
Finally he was betrayed and taken to London, where 
he was barbarously put to death. 

Robert Bruce, the Liberator of Scotland. — Wal- 
lace's flight left the Scotch helpless, but after a time 
they found in Robert Bruce even a better leader. 
Bruce was grandson of one of the original claimants 
of the Scotch crown. Fearing what he might do, 

Scott, castie Edward had held him a prisoner in England, but 

Dangerous. fi na Uy h e escaped from his captors. By the clever 
ruse of shoeing his horse backward, he evaded pur- 
suit and succeeded in reaching the border. Here 
the people rallied about him, and he won several vie- 

coronation of tories over the English. At Scone he assumed the 
crown, although the sacred stone was gone, But the 
tide now turned in favor of the English. Many of 
Bruce's followers were killed, his wife and daughter 
were flung into prison, and the Countess of Buchan, 
who had placed the crown upon his head, was seized 



The Beginnings of Great Britain 105 

and exposed in an iron cage, high up on the walls of 
Berwick. Bruce himself escaped to the mountains. 
Here he lived in hiding, hunted by bloodhounds, and 
often in danger of his life, but bravely waiting a time 
to renew the struggle against the hated English. 
Scotland was still unconquered when Edward died, 
worn out with his mistaken attempt to break down 
the independence of a nation. 

Books for Study 

Creighton, Simon de Montfort 
Tout, Edward the First. 
Maxwell, Robert the Bruce. 
Mackintosh, The Story of Scotland. 

Suggestive Questions 

Section i. — Describe the effect of an interdict. Why was 
John so much in England ? What liberties were granted by the 
charter ? 

Section 2. — Tell what the friars did for England. In what 
ways was Henry a bad king ? Who supported Simon de 
Montfort ? 

Section 3. — What kind of a king was Edward ? Tell what 
Edward did to keep order. Describe the Model Parliament. 

Section 4. — What did Edward do to keep peace in Wales ? 
What was the Stone of Scone ? Why did Edward make war on 
Balliol ? Describe the battle of Falkirk. 

Special Topics 

The Great Charter. 

Life of Edward before he came to the throne. 

William Wallace. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE FRENCH WARS 

"Am I a king, and must be overruled ? 
I'll bandy with the barons and the earls v 
And either die or live with Gaveston. ^ 

— Marlowe : Edward //., Act I., Sc. i. 

Section i. Edward II 

The son of the great Edward was an unworthy 
king. He was not a bad man nor a cruel one. In 
private life he would have been thought an agree- 
able, courteous gentleman, with a taste for music 
and art and foreign fashions that led him to spend 
beyond his income. It was a misfortune that he was 
born to a throne, for he had no interest in govern- 
ment, no thought for the well-being of the people, no 
concern for the honor of the nation. Throughout 
his reign of twenty years, the second Edward devoted 
himself to his personal friends and to his private 
pleasure. He filled his court with foreigners and 
spent upon his favorites the treasure that should 
have gone to the defence of England. The troubles 
of his life were largely due to this foolish indulgence. 

Gaveston. — Foremost among the gentlemen at the 
court of Edward II was Piers Gaveston, his foster- 
brother and playmate. The old king had so dreaded 

1 06 



Edward II 



107 



the influence of this man that he had banished him 
from the kingdom. When Edward II came to the 
throne, he recalled his favorite, made him Earl of 
Cornwall, and lavished upon him money and lands, 




House of the Fourteenth Century at Lincoln. 

Roof, chimney shafts, and square windows are modern. 

The young Frenchman was talented and amusing, 
far more cultivated than the English lords, but self- 
ish and greedy and a born mischief-maker. He and 
his gay following laughed at the rough old barons, 



io8 



The French Wars 



Tiiomas of 
Lancaster. 



The De- 

6pensers. 



the great men of the realm, and gave them con- 
temptuous nicknames, such as " the Actor," "the 
Jew," " the Black Dog." The barons, led by Thomas 
of Lancaster, the king's own cousin, vowed vengeance 
and succeeded in inducing Parliament to decree 
Gaveston's banishment. Twice they drove him from 
the realm, and twice Edward recalled him. At last 
they had resort to violence. Gaveston was taken 
prisoner and put to death. 

Ordinances of Reform (131 1 ). — Meantime the barons 
were endeavoring to curb the king's extravagance. 
The government was put in charge of a committee of 
great lords who drew up a scheme of reform. No 
war was to be undertaken without consent of Par- 
liament, unauthorized taxes were to be abolished, 
the king's ministers must be approved by Parliament, 
and bad counsellors were to be removed from court. 
These proposals the king was obliged to accept, but 
he had no intention of abiding by them. The part 
of Gaveston was now played by two new favorites, 
Hugh Despenser and his father, who had more influ- 
ence with the king than Lancaster, the Parliament, 
or the nation itself. 

Despairing of ousting the favorites by peaceful 
means, the barons at last made war against the king. 
They were defeated in battle, however, and many of 
the leaders were slain. Lancaster was taken pris- 
oner and put to death. Others of his party were 
sent into exile. The common people long lamented 
the death. of the old earl, regarding him as a saint 



Edward II 109 

and a martyr. He was not a saint, however, not 
even a disinterested patriot like Simon de Montfort. 
He was moved to his protest against misgovernment 
more by personal ambition and by hatred of foreign- 
ers than by love for the people. 

Deposition of Edward II. — The death of Lancaster Ed-ward n. 

r by Marlowe 

did not rid the king of opposition. His foolish fond- 
ness for the Despensers raised up foes in his own 
household. Queen Isabel, smarting under the slights 
put upon her, fled to the court of her brother, the 
king of France, taking with her Prince Edward, the 
heir apparent. In Paris, she was eagerly received 
by the exiled leaders of the Lancastrian party and 
induced to join in a plot against her husband, the 
feeble Edward. 

The conspirators landed on the south coast in 1326. 
They had but a small body of men, mostly foreign- 
ers, but they were soon reenforced. Henry of Isabel's 
Lancaster, brother of Thomas, most of the barons 
of eastern England, even the brothers of the 
king, flocked to Isabel's standard. Edward fled to 
the west and took refuge with the Despensers in 
Bristol, where he hoped to find support. When the 
insurgent troops arrived, however, and laid siege to 
the city, the burghers proved quite unwilling to sacri- 
fice anything to so unworthy a king, and threw open 
their gates. Edward escaped in an open boat, hoping 
to find asylum on an island off the coast. But even 
the winds were hostile to the disgraced monarch. 
The boat was driven ashore and captured. Young 



invasion. 



no The French Wars 

Despenser was put to death with cruel mockery, and 

the king was forced to abdicate in favor of his son. 

Act of The act of deposition approved by Parliament, de- 

deposition. 

clared the second Edward incompetent to govern, 

since he had rejected all good counsel and been led 

by evil men, had neglected the defences of the realm, 

ruined the kingdom by extravagance, failed to execute 

justice, and put to death many great and noble 

citizens. The king was soon after murdered in prison. 



Section 2. Effects of Misgovernment 

During the long quarrel between Edward II and 
the barons, the affairs of the kingdom had gone from 
bad to worse. The laws were not enforced, thieves 
and highwaymen grew fearless, and the country dis- 
tricts were terrorized by bands of armed men. Hon- 
est merchants dared not carry their wares to distant 
markets, and the peasants feared to harvest their 
crops. Bread rose to starvation prices. In 13 15 
famine fell upon the land, and many thousands died 
of want. 

The Loss of Scotland. — Across the Border the 
Scotch were making the most of the opportunity to 
secure their independence. The champions of the 
Bruce, Lord Douglas at their head, laid siege to the 
English fortresses and won them back to Scotland. 
The whole of the anglicized Lowlands was con- 
quered before England stirred. When finally news 
came that Stirling, the key to the Highlands, was 



Effects of Misgovernment 



III 



about to surrender, Edward was roused to action. 
He collected an army of thirty thousand English 
horsemen, summoned thousands of half-savage war- 
riors from Wales and Ireland, and marched to the 
relief of the beleaguered citadel. 




Field of Bannockburn. 

King Robert was prepared for the attack. He 
marshalled his foot-soldiers on the rising ground 
between the castle and the marshy brook of Ban- Battle of 
nockburn. Their ranks presented a bristling wall bum, 1314. 
of spears against which the advancing English hurled 
themselves in vain. Edward's bowmen were scattered 
by a sudden rush of cavalry. His men at arms be- 
came mired in the bog or entangled in the pitfalls 



12 



The French Wars 



The Battle of 
Baiinockburn, 
by Robert 
Burns. 



The Boy's 
Froissa rt, 
Bk. I, ch. 
XIV. 



The Battle of 
Otterburne . 



that the Scotch had dug in the open plain. The ap- 
pearance of a body of camp-followers, whom the 
English took to be reinforcements for the Bruce, 
converted their discomfiture into a rout Hundreds 
of lords and gentlemen were left dead upon the field. 
The king himself barely escaped, with a small body- 
guard, to Berwick. 

The victory at Bannockburn gave the Scotch the 
independence they had fought for so long. After 
several futile efforts to regain the ground lost, Ed- 
ward II was obliged to acknowledge the Bruce as 
king of Scotland, and his father's plan for the union 
of the two kingdoms came to nothing. 

Border Warfare. — The discontent of the English 
incited them to frequent attempts at conquest, 
which were speedily avenged by raids across the 
Border. The Scotch were well suited to this guerilla 
warfare. Hardy mountaineers, they could ride night 
and day without rest and with little food. They fur- 
nished no provision wagons for the march, but relied 
on what the country might afford. Each man car- 
ried a little bag of oatmeal behind his saddle and 
made for himself the oat-cake that served as 
bread. For drink he was content with river water„ 
The horses needed no stabling, but were turned loose 
to pasture on the heath. An army so independent 
of supplies was not easily destroyed. 

For the century following upon the battle of Ban- 
nockburn, the Border was wasted by this bitter strife. 
It was exciting and picturesque, but demoralizing to 



Reign of Edward III 1 1 3 

both parties. The barons of the north, Northumber- 
land and Westmoreland, bred to this warfare, grew 
rough and unruly. They proved ready to lead their 
vassals against an English king when occasion 
offered. 

Further Revolts. — The success of the Scots fired 
Wales and Ireland with the hope of independence. 
The Welsh insurrection was readily crushed, but 
Ireland proved more difficult The tribes united to 
throw off the English yoke, and elected as king, 
Edward Bruce, brother of Robert. For three years 

J Edward 

Ireland was able to defy Edward's generals, but in Bruce, King 

J of Ireland. 

the end the jealous quarrels of tribal chiefs betrayed 
the country to the English. 

The unlucky Edward finally got into difficulties 
that endangered his French possessions. On ac- 
count of the misconduct of the English officers in 
Guienne, the French king invaded the province and 
threatened to claim it for his own. This trouble 
was still brewing when Edward II was deposed. 
Parliament was justified in complaining that he was 
responsible for the loss of Scotland, Wales, Ireland, 
and the French provinces. 

Section 3. Reign of Edward III (1 327-1 377) 

Beginning of the War witL France. — The third 
Edward was a far abler man than his father, but by 
no means a statesman. Young, ambitious, daring, 
eager to push every advantage and slow to count the 



114 The French Wars 

cost, he involved England in a war with France that 
lasted for one hundred years, and well-nigh ruined 
both nations. The war was due to the king's rest- 
less ambition, but he could urge reasons that won 
for it the support of Parliament. The success of the 




Edward III. 

Bruce in Scotland was largely due to the aid and 
comfort given by France, and the French king was 
evidently plotting to get control of Guienne. These 
were grounds for national hatred, but Edward pro- 
posed a motive that was well calculated to stir the 
ambition of England. He brought forward a claim 
to the crown of France. The claim was good from 



Reign of Edward III 1 1 5 

the English point of view. Edward III 1 was the Edward's 

claim to the 

sole surviving grandson of Philip the Fair, while crown of 
Philip VI was only his nephew. The French courts 
had decided in favor of Philip, preferring, naturally 
enough, that their king should be a Frenchman; but 
Edward proposed to enforce his rights. Parliament 
granted abundant supplies, and the king prepared 
for an invasion of France. 

Battle of Sluys, 1340. — The campaign began 
brilliantly. In the naval battle of Sluys the French 
fleet was destroyed and the Channel cleared of the 
enemy. The folly of the French commanders was 
made evident in this first encounter. Their vessels 
lay chained together at the mouth of the harbor, 
and were thrown into hopeless confusion by the 
English attack. The sailors, unable to escape other- 
wise, leaped into the sea. No one but the court fool 
dared carry word of the disaster to the king. 
"What cowards those English are," said he; "they 
had not the courage to jump overboard, as the 
French did." 

Crecy, 1346. ■ — The first great land battle was fought 

1 Claim of Edward III to the throne of France : — 
Philip III, the Bold, 1 270-1 285 



Philip IV, the Fair, 1285-1314 Charles of Valois 

\~ ~ \~ ~~\~ ~~\ Philip VI, 1328-1350 

Louis X, Philip V, Charles IV, Isabel, m. I 

1314-1316 1316-1322 1322-1328 Edward II J ohn > I35 " I 364 

I I 

Edward III Charles V, 1 360-1 380 



u6 



The French Wars 



The French 
army a feudal 
levy. 



The Boy's 
Froissart. 
Bk. I, chs. 
LIII LV. 



Lack of 
discipline. 



at Crecy, where Edward won a victory out of all pro- 
portion to the size of his army. Their experience in 
the Scotch wars had taught the English the impor- 
tance of discipline and the effectiveness of light- 
armed foot-soldiers when matched against mailed 
cavalry. The French force was made up of the 
feudal following of the great lords, each of whom 
was a law unto himself and to his retainers. The 
small body of Genoese crossbowmen, hired by 

Philip to meet the English 
archers, was regarded with 
contempt by the French 
knights. 

Froissart tells us how the 
battle went. The French 
army had been pursuing 
the English and, when 
they finally came up with 
the enemy, were wearied 
and in disorder. A halt 
was determined on, but the 
order was not obeyed. 
"Those that were in the 
front halted, but those be- 
hind said they would not 
halt until they were as far forward as the front. 
When the front perceived the rear pressing on, they 
pushed forward ; and neither the king nor the mar- 
shals could stop them, but they marched without any 
order until they came in sight of their enemies. As 




Genoese Crossbowman. 



Reign of Edward III 1 1 7 

soon as the foremost rank saw them (the English), 
they fell back at once in great disorder, which 
alarmed those in the rear who thought they had 
been fighting." The Genoese were ordered to make 
the attack, but they were worn out with the long 
march, and the sun shone in their faces so they could 
not see the foe. With the first flight of the English 
arrows, they cut the strings of their crossbows and 
fled in confusion. " Kill me those scoundrels," T , he _ M 

' slaughter of 

shouted King Philip, " for they stop up our road." the Genoese. 
The mailed knights then fell upon the runaways, 
killing all they could catch. The army was soon in 
hopeless confusion. 

Meantime, the English arrows were falling steadily 
on the tangle of men and horses, with great effect, 
and a body of wild Welsh and Cornishmen, armed 
with great knives, threaded their way through the 
helpless mass, slaying barons and knights and poor 
Genoese, without regard to race or rank. Eleven 
French princes fell that day and twelve hundred 
nobles of lesser rank, besides thirty thousand common 
men. The English killed more than the sum of their 
own army all told. 

The Black Prince. — Kins: Edward's eldest son 

& Stoddard. 

commanded the first battalion, though he was but with the 
sixteen years of age. He fought in the very thick 
of the conflict, and the Earl of Warwick, fearing 
that ill might befall him, sent a knight to the king, 
asking for reinforcements. Said the king, " Is my 
son dead, unhorsed, or so badly wounded that he 



Black Prince 



The French Wars 



The Boys 
Froissart, 
Bk. I, chs. 
LXV-LXVI. 



Fall of 
Calais, 1346 



cannot support himself ? " " Nothing of the sort, 
thank God," replied the messenger, "but he is in 
so hot an engagement that he has great need of your 
help." The king answered : " Now, Sir Thomas, 
return to those that sent you, and tell them from me 
not to send again for me this day or expect that I 
shall come, let what will happen, as long as my son 
has life. Say that I command them to let the boy 
win his spurs ; for I am determined, if it please 
God, that all the glory and honor of this day shall be 
given to him, and to those to whom I have entrusted 
him." 

Siege of Calais. — Victorious as he was, Edward 
dared not push further into the enemy's country 
with his little force. Like a wise general, he turned 
to secure his connections. Calais was a flourishing 
port, grown rich through trade with England, and a 
most important source of supplies. The king besieged 
the city by land and sea, and succeeded in cutting off 
reinforcements so completely that after twelve months' 
valiant resistance, the burghers were starved into sub- 
mission. Froissart tells the story of the six patriotic 
citizens who gave themselves into the king's hands 
that the townspeople might go free, and how Edward 
forbore to hang them because of the queen's inter- 
cession. The lives of the citizens were indeed spared 
to them. Not so their property. All who refused to 
forswear the French allegiance were driven from the 
place, and the town was peopled with English. 

An Interval of Peace (1347-1355). — Not all these 



Reign of Edward III 



119 



brilliant victories could give Edward the crown of 
France. The burden of the war was beginning to 
be felt in England. Parliament protested against 
excessive taxation and refused further supplies. In 
1347 Edward was forced to agree to a truce, which, 
being renewed from time to time, gave the exhausted 
land eight years of peace. 




A Battering-ram. 



This was fortunate, for the Black Death, a plague The Black 
that had been devastating Europe, reached Britain in 
1349 and swept away half the population in the next 
few years. There were not men left to till the fields, 
much less to fight out the king's quarrel with France. 

Poictiers(i356). — In 1355 the war broke out afresh. 
Philip VI was dead, but his son John met the Eng- 



120 



The French Wars 



The Boy's 
Froissart, 
chs. LXXVI- 
LXXXII. 



The Free 
Companies. 



lish pretensions with defiance and was ready to fight 
for his crown. The Black Prince took a great army 
to Bordeaux, and from that point of vantage marched 
through the south of France to Narbonne. He showed 
no mercy to the people, but laid waste the country as 
he went, burning five hundred towns and villages in 
seven weeks. Such cruelty was not likely to increase 
love for the English. At Poictiers Prince Edward 
won a decisive victory. With a small but well disci- 
plined force, he put to flight a French army far superior 
in number to his own, and took many prisoners. King 
John himself was among the captives. 

The Treaty of Bretigny (1360). — The state of 
France was pitiable. The king was a prisoner, the 
army scattered, rich territories were overrun by rov- 
ing bands of armed men, deserters from the English 
as well as from the French armies. But the con- 
queror did not know how to make use of his victory. 
The English troops pillaged the subject provinces 
until the wasted land could no longer furnish food 
for the inhabitants > so they turned against the in- 
vader. City after city rose in revolt, and powerful 
barons summoned their retainers to follow them in 
a crusade against the common oppressor. Finally 
the Black Prince was forced to come to terms. In 
the peace of Bretigny the claim to the French throne 
was abandoned. England, however, retained pos- 
session of Gascony, Guienne, and Aquitaine, together 
with Ponthieu and Calais, fully one-third of the terri- 
tory of France. 




ENGRAVED BY BDHMAY & CO., N.Y. 



The State of England 12 1 

England's Defeat. — The Black Prince now became 
Duke of Aquitaine and held his court at Bordeaux. 
Though brave and successful in war, he was not a 
statesman and proved quite unable to restore order 
to the ruined provinces. The soldiers clamored for 
pay, and when their demands were not met, they 
joined the Free Companies and lived by plunder. 
Heavy taxes were imposed on the impoverished peo- 
ple. At last the provinces rose against their con- 
querors "and welcomed the armies of Charles V. 

England could make no headway against this 
patriotic movement. Broken in health and in spirits, 
the Black Prince came home to die. The old king 
was in his dotage. Surrounded by flatterers and 
selfish counsellors, he had no mind to renew the 
fight. The resources of the country were exhausted 
by long years of war, and the lost armies could not 
be restored. By 1374 England's possessions in 
France had dwindled to a few coast towns, Calais, Loss of the 

French 

Bordeaux, and Bayonne. The English fleet had been provinces, 
destroyed in a sea-fight off Rochelle, and the control 
of the Channel was lost. French and Spanish pirates 
began to prey upon the southern coasts. 

Section 4. The State of England 

The reign of Edward III, so brilliant in the be- 
ginning, drew to its close in grief and gloom. The 
long war had been a heavy drain upon the resources 
of the country and a demoralizing influence upon 



122 



The French Wars 



all who had a share in it. The great lords returned 
to England to spend in reckless extravagance the 
wealth wrung from the French. The common sol- 
diers brought back no booty, but they had acquired 
habits of brutality and lawlessness that made it 
difficult for them to settle down to a quiet life. 
Baron and commoner alike had learned to think 
lightly of the king and his officers and to defy the 
law. 

John of Gaunt. — The real ruler of England was 
John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, the third son of 




Effigy on the Tomb of the Black Prince. 



King Edward, and the evil genius of his house. 
Able and ambitious, he did not scruple to ally him- 
self with the vicious counsellors of the king, nor to 
take hush-money from men who were growing rich 
at the expense of the public treasury. 

Finally the House of Commons summoned courage 
to protest against Gaunt's misgovernment. They 
sent up petitions to the king, setting forth the cor- 
ruption of the ministers, the inefficiency of the courts, 
the misconduct of the war, the extravagant wealth of 
the church. The king was forced to promise reform, 



The State of England 123 

and the corrupt ministers were removed from office. 
The Commons were relying upon the sympathy of 
the Black Prince, who sent them encouraging mes- Death of the 

° Black Prince 

sages from his sick-bed. His death deprived them 1371. 
of their only friend at court. John of Gaunt soon 
induced the king to recall his promises. 

When at last the dishonored monarch died, there Death of 

Edward III, 

were few to mourn his loss. The heir to the throne 1377. 
was Richard of Bordeaux, son of the Black Prince, 
but he was a mere child of eleven years. The king- 
dom was like a ship without a rudder, sailing through 
tempestuous seas. 

The Beginnings of English Literature. — It is good 
to turn from the corruption of the court and the 
weakness of the government to the literary achieve- 
ments of this period. Its great men were not all 
warriors and statesmen. Some Englishmen were 
thinking thoughts and writing books that have come 
to mean more to the nation than all the victories 
of Edward III. 

One of these was John Wyclif, a learned priest, johnwyciif. 
who protested against the wealth and corruption of 
the church, and sympathized with the attempt of 
the Good Parliament to check the power of the 
higher clergy. Finding that reforms were resented 
by the ecclesiastical authorities, he undertook to 
educate the nation to higher ideas of what religion 
meant. He translated the Bible into the language 
of the common people and sent his disciples — Lol- 
lards, or babblers, as they were mockingly called — 



William 
Langland. 



24 



The French Wars 



through the length and breadth of the kingdom to 
preach the word as he believed Christ taught it. 

William Langland was another priest who believed 
that the church was neglecting its duty. He was 
not learned, but a man of the people who knew and 
grieved for the sufferings of the poor. In his great 




Wyclif. 

book, The Vision of Piers Plowman, he described 
the life of the world about him as it would look to 
the eyes of Christ, should He return to earth. Lang- 
land wrote for the people and in their own rough 
speech. .His vision of the peasant saint was one 
of the most popular poems of that day. 



The State of England 125 

Geoffrey Chaucer was a man of the world, a court- Geoffrey 

y~ m • • n Chaucer. 

ier and a poet. His Canterbury Tales most vividly 
describe such men and women as he saw about him, 
and give us a true picture of fourteenth century 
England. Though he wrote for lords and ladies and 
not for the people, Chaucer, too, used the English 
language and not the Norman French then spoken 
at court. 

English, indeed, was coming to be spoken by all Triumph of 

& . . the English 

classes. At the sessions of Parliament, in the law language, 
courts, and in the schools, the tongue of the despised 
Anglo-Saxon was supplanting that of the conquering 
race. 

Books to be Studied 

Stubbs, Early Plantagenets. Oman, England and the Hun- 
dred Years' War. Warburton, Edward III. 

Suggestive Questions 

Section i. — Compare Edward II with Henry III in his 
character as king. Compare the ordinances of reform with the 
provisions of Oxford. Why was Edward II deposed? 

Section 2. — Account for the revolt of (1) the Scotch, (2) the 
Welsh, (3) the Irish. Why were the French possessions 
threatened? 

Section 3. — Account for the outbreak of the French war. 
With what battle did Edward III gain control of the Channel, and 
with what battle did he lose it? Account for the victories of the 
English armies. Why did they finally fail? 

Section 4. — What complaint did the Commons make of 
John of Gaunt? What was the result? 

Special Topics 

John Wyclif. Serjeant, John Wyclif. 
Prologue to Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE NATIONAL AWAKENING 

Poor people, Thy prisoners, Lord, in the pit of mischief, 
Comfort Thy creatures that much care suffer 
Through dearth, through drought, all their days here. 
Woe in winter times for wanting of clothes, 
And in summer time seldom sup to the full ; 
Comfort Thy careful. Christ, in Thy kingdom, 
For how Thou comfortest ail creatures, priests bear witness. 
— Lang land, Vision of Piers P/owman. 

Section i. Progress of the People 

Throughout the fourteenth century, despite heavy 
taxes and corrupt ministers, the people were making 
greater gains in wealth and intelligence than at any 
previous period in English history. The war with 
France had meant a heavy loss of men and money, 
but happily for England, the battles were fought on 
foreign soil and the armies were fed at the expense 
of the foe. 

Work of Edward III. — Some part of this growing 
prosperity was due to the wisdom of Edward III. 
He did what a king might to foster trade. The 
products of English fields and of English mines — 
wool, leather, tin, and iron — were being sent to the 
Continent for sale. The merchants brought back fine 

126 



Progress of the People 



127 



cloths, silk, glass, and other goods not produced in 
England, where the people had little skill in manu- 
factures. The battle of Sluys gave England control 
of the Channel for twenty-five years. Edward made 




:> -■■; = 



Ships of the Time of Richard II. 

use of this opportunity to clear the sea of the pirates 
that had preyed on English shipping. 

In the hope of developing cloth manufacture, 
Edward III offered his protection to the Flemish The Flemish 
weavers banished from their native country, and 
many came over and settled in the eastern counties. 
English craftsmen were foolishly jealous of the 
superior skill of the foreigners, but they soon con- 
sented to learn from them the secrets of their trade. 



weavers. 



128 



The National Awakening 



The appren- 
tices. 



The Craftsmen. — No power machinery was then 
in use. Wool was spun into yarn on a distaff or 
wheel and woven into cloth on a rude hand loom. 
Other manufactures were as simple. No industry 
had advanced beyond the handicraft stage. Each 
master-craftsman taught the trade to his apprentices; 
boys who were bound to serve without wages for a 
term of years and were given bed, food, and clothing 
in return for their labor. The master was often a 




Spinning with a Wheel. 



petty tyrant, and the apprentices were always ready 
to avenge themselves when occasion offered. In the 
end, however, the boy hoped to become a master- 
craftsman and to set up a shop of his own. If he 
had not skill for this, he might at least become a 
journeyman and earn regular wages. The chance to 
better himself was thus open to every townsman. 

Naturally the boy who was born a erf and bound 
to work for his lord without wages and with no chance 
of rising, longed to escape from the manor and find 
refuge within the walls of a town. Thousands of 
bondsmen succeeded in becoming freemen in this 



Progress of the People 



29 



way, and added in no small degree to the city popu- 
lation. 

London. — The chief city of the kingdom was then 
as now London. Great walls enclosed the city on the 





MIDDLE 


SEX, 






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^P^lM'elx4Qw~ 




New o-.ite J ^"""■'l. 
Fleet Prison J| c h e „. \ 


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Temple 

The Savoj 

Palace^ 

CharingT i 
Cross 1 f 


J^Ald Gate 
3j[The. Tower 


White Chapel 


^*K- -~^_iro f Tower 


f London Bridyey ^^^ 


Jl 


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\\\'<tiiiiiistef ' 
Abbey / 


1 V. 






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ENGRAVED BY BOBMAY 4 CO., NY 



Map Illustrating the Events of the Peasants' Rising. 



north, from Fleet Prison to the Tower. Seven gates 
opened on as many highways and gave free access 
to every man who came in peace and by day. They 
were always closed at night. The river, which 
served for defence on the south, was spanned by a 



30 



The National Awakening 



The palaces 
of the rich. 



The hovels 
of the poor. 



famous bridge, then thought to be one of the wonders 
of the world. It was like a street, with houses and 
shops on either side. A strong tower was built at 
the city end of it to guard against attack. A draw- 
bridge that might be lifted in times of danger divided 
the street from the Surrey shore. 

London was the trading centre of the kingdom 
and the resort of merchants, English and foreign. 
Cheapside was the principal street, where fairs were 
held and all important business was transacted. 
Near by dwelt the Lombards, the Italian bankers, 
who loaned money at a high rate of interest to the 
king himself. The Flemish weavers, also foreigners 
and hated for that reason, lived in a quarter by them- 
selves under the king's protection. 

Fourteenth century London boasted many beauti- 
ful residences built by wealthy merchants and by 
great nobles who spent some part of every year in 
the city. John of Gaunt's palace, the Savoy, had a 
church within its confines, and provided quarters for 
a small army of retainers. At Lambeth Palace, on 
the opposite side of the Thames, lived the arcn- 
bishop of Canterbury. The houses of the rich were 
usually built along the north bank, where from their 
own water-gates the lords and ladies could take a 
boat for an airing on the river. 

The craftsmen and other laborers were crowded 
together in narrow, crooked streets, where sun- 
shine and fresh air seldom reached them. In the 
homes of the poor, discontent was brooding. It 



Progress of the People 



131 



was not easy to understand why one man should Long wui, 

.. , , . , -1 1 M 1 1 by Fl0reilCe 

live in splendor without toil, while another who Converse, 
worked early and late should have only a crust of 
bread and a ragged blouse for his portion. Yet even 
for these London furnished amusement. Appren- 
tices, beggars, strolling minstrels, vagabond adven- 




The Savoy Palace from the Thames. 

turers, crowded the streets in the evenings and on 
holidays, eager for fun, excitement, mischief. The 
strange speech and dress of the foreign merchants 
and sailors, the grand retinue of some great lord 
newly come to town, the advent of the king with his 
brilliant court, the return of soldiers from France 
with their stories of brave deeds, served always to 
attract a throng of idlers. 

Life in the Country was by comparison dull and 
hard. Conditions were practically the same as before 



132 



The National Awakening 



Money rent 
and money 
wages. 



the Norman Conquest. The man who tilled the soil 
had little to hope for beyond food and shelter for 
himself and his family. Half the produce of his 
fields and one-third of his working days were due to 
the lord of the manor. During the fourteenth cen- 
tury, many peasants had been able to improve their 
condition somewhat, by securing the privilege of 
paying the money equivalent of these services. This 
was a great gain, since the peasants were now free to 
devote their whole time to their own fields, and were 
at liberty to sell the surplus produce. The change 
was an advantage to the lord as well, for with the 
money so paid in, he might hire laborers to work 
continuously on the land reserved for his own use. 
The wage-paid shepherd would take better care of 
the sheep than a number of unwilling serfs. The 
thatcher or plowman who was given steady employ- 
ment on the estate acquired a skill far superior to 
that of the churl who was obliged to turn from one 
task to another at the bailiff's bidding. 

Effects of the Black Death. — In this way, serfage 
was rapidly disappearing, without any act of emanci- 
pation, when the Black Death reached England. 
The Pestilence was peculiarly fatal among the young 
and vigorous. Half of the laboring population 
perished. Those who remained, taking advantage 
of the landlord's necessity, asked double wages. 
Indeed, they could hardly do otherwise, since the 
price of food had risen and they could not provide 
for their families at the old rates. The indignant 



Progress of the People 133 

masters refused to give more than the customary 
wage and appealed to the government to come to 
their aid. The serfs had no representatives in Par- 
liament to plead their cause, and the masters had 
their own way. The Statute of Laborers declared The statute 

J of Laborers, 

that workmen, whether in city or country, must take «as«« 
the wages usual before the Pestilence, or suffer 
heavy penalty. To make all fair, merchants were 
required to charge no more for food and cloth than 
the former prices. 

Discontent. — The law could not, however, be en- 
forced. The price of food continued high because 
many farms lay uncultivated, while the laborers, 
denied a living wage by their masters, wandered the 
country over in search of better pay. When the Laborers* 

unions. 

lords tried to use force, the laborers formed secret 
unions, members of which were pledged to support 
one another in resisting the law. The situation was 
desperate, for without labor the fields lay idle, the 
flocks roamed untended, and the farm buildings fell 
to ruin. 

Despairing of reducing wages, some of the lords 
attempted to require once more the abandoned ser- 
vile dues. Others let out the land to tenants at 
a low money rent, others gave over plowing and 
sowing altogether and turned the cultivated fields 
into sheep pasture. The long struggle bred much 
ill will. 



134 The National Awakening 

Section 2. The Peasants' Revolt 

The Poll Tax. — With the affairs of government, 
too, the people had reason to be discontented. The 
French wars had ended disastrously, but heavy taxes 
were still collected for fruitless expeditions across the 
Channel. Ordinary taxes the laborers would not 
directly feel, but the poll tax levied in 1381 was re- 
quired of every man and woman in the kingdom, and 
every child above fifteen years of age. The poorest 
workman had to pay 4^., more than the wage allowed 
for a day's labor. In the early spring, the king's 
commissioners were sent into the country to enforce 
The Dream payment of the tax. Their approach was a signal 
by wmiam. ' for outbreak. The eastern districts, Essex, Kent, 
and East Anglia, first rose in revolt, but the insurrec- 
tion spread north to York and west as far as Somer- 
set with astonishing rapidity. 

Agitators. — Doubtless the wandering laborers had 
carried the sense of grievance through the land. The 
soldiers returned from the wars added a restless ele- 
ment. Many of the Lollard priests sympathized 
with the people and urged them on. Such a man 
John Ban. was John Ball. Froissart describes him as a crazy 
priest who was accustomed every Sunday after mass 
to gather the people in the market-place, and to 
preach to them in this fashion : " My good friends, 
things cannot go on well in England, nor ever will, 
until everything shall be in common ; when there 
shall be neither vassal nor lord, and all distinctions 




ENGRAVED BY BORMAY it CO., N.Y. 



The Peasants'' Revolt 



135 



shall be levelled ; when the lords shall be no more 
masters than ourselves. How ill they have used us ! 
And for what reason do they thus hold us in bond- 



age 



? Are we not all descended from the same 




When Adam delved and Eve span, 
Who was then the gentleman? 



parents, Adam and Eve ? 
. . . They are clothed in 
velvets and rich stuffs orna- 
mented with ermine and 
other furs, while we are 
forced to wear poor cloth. 
They have wine, spices, and 
fine bread, when we have 
only rye and the refuse of 
the straw, and if we drink, 
it must be water. They 
have handsome seats and 
manors, when we must 
brave the wind and rain in 

our labors in the field ; but it is from our labor 
they have wherewith to support their pomp. We 
are called slaves, and if we do not perform our ser- 
vices, we are beaten ; and we have not any sovereign 
to whom we can complain, or who wishes to hear us 
and do justice. Let us go to the king, who is young, 
and remonstrate with him on our servitude, telling 
him that we must have it otherwise, or that we shall 
find a remedy for it ourselves. If we wait on him in 
a body, all those who are called serfs or are held in 
bondage will follow us in the hope of being free. 
When the king shall see us, we shall obtain a favora- 



136 The National Awakening 

ble answer, or it' not, we must then seek ourselves to 
amend our condition/' 

The Attack on London. — In many another town 
in England, men were preaching like things. It did 
not take much argument to convince the people, 
serfs and wage-laborers of the country, or the appren- 
tices and journeymen of the towns, that their wrongs 
might be righted if once they could get the ear oi 
young Richard. The fault, they were persuaded, 
was not with the king, but with his ministers. John 
of Gaunt they feared and hated. It was he who had 

Urged on the war and called for tax alter tax. while 

pilfering the treasury for his private spending. He 
was suspected, moreover, of intriguing tor the su< 

sion. "We will have no kin- called John," said the 

plain-spoken people. 

In the first days ( »t June, ham: >jnts 1>< 

t<> move along the roads that led to London. From 

all the villages "t Kent rame the plowmen and 

thatchers and hedgers, rude, ignorant fellows, know- 
ing only dimly what they were to do, but bent on 
wat Tyler. reaching the kin-. Their leader was Wat 'IV. 
man who had served in the French wars and 
learned something <-t" military discipline. It wa 
sorry army that he commanded. The men v. 
rudely armed "with sticks, r; rds, battle-a\ 

bows colored by smoke and age, with one arrow 
apiece, and often only one wing to the arrow," but 
they had stout hearts and hoped to carry all before 
them. On Wednesday, June 12, Tyler's following 



. isants* A 






arrived at Black heath, a moor five miles - 
oi London, and there listened to a sermon from 
John Hall. Rebels from 1 JSC* and the north were 
gathering in like manner north of the city. 




The Tower of London 

London Betrayed. The king's ministers were 

troubled. They had no str<»n- force at hand, and 

the loyalty <>t the citizens was doubtful. There was 

ill to believe that the populace sympathized with 



138 



The National Awakening 



Attack on 
Marshalsea 
Prison and 
Lambeth 
Palace. 



the peasants. Wat Tyler hoped for a settlement, 
and sent messengers to confer with the king. Rich- 
ard took a boat to cross the river, meaning to 
speak to the people, but his ministers feared for his 
life and persuaded him to row on to the Tower* 
Growing impatient, as night fell the more daring of 
the peasants attacked Marshalsea Prison and levelled 
it with the ground. Other bands made their way to 
Lambeth Palace and wreaked their hatred on the 
archbishop (who in his office of chancellor had 
authorized the poll tax) by pillaging his residence. 
Thursday morning early, the whole army marched 
on London Bridge. To their joy their passage was 
not disputed. The mayor, Thomas Walworth, dared 
not trust the guard, and gave orders to let down the 
drawbridge. At the same time, Aldgate was opened 
to the peasants crowding in from the north. Once 
in possession of the city, the insurgents began to de- 
stroy all that stood to them for tyranny and misrule, 
savoy Palace Savoy Palace was burned to the ground. Fleet 
Prison was broken open, and the felons set free. 
The Temple, the abode of the lawyers, was gutted 
and the hateful papers burned. The rebels set up 
a block in Cheapside, and there put to death the men 
whom they held* responsible for injustice. John of 
Gaunt, luckily for him, was safe in Scotland, but 
several of the king's ministers lost their heads. 
The Flemings and the Lombards were slain wher- 
ever found, in the streets or hidden away in their 
houses. 



The Peasants' Revolt 



139 



Richard's Courage. — Meanwhile, the young king 
watched the burning buildings from the Tower, and 
listened to the angry roaring of the mob. His coun- 




«&.;, ■'. ./'i ■■■■:■■ :,j 

Richard II. 



sellors were with him, but they were of little use. The 
mayor advised that the armed men among the citizens 
should steal forth in the night and kill the peasants 



140 The National Awakening 

"like flies" as they lay asleep in the streets; others 
urged, " Sire, if you can appease them by fair words, 
it will be so much the better, and good humoredly 
grant them what they ask : for should we begin what 
we cannot go through with, we shall never be able 
to recover it. It will be all over with us and our 
heirs, and England will be a desert." 

Finally, Richard sent a herald to proclaim that all 
who desired to speak with him should go to the 

conference at meadow at Mile-end and there await his coming. 
On Friday morning, the king went to the place, and 
found sixty thousand people awaiting him. Nothing 
daunted, he rode forward, and addressed them pleas- 
antly : " My good people, I am your king and your 

The Boys' lord. What is it you want ? and what do you wish 

Froissart. , , . . 

Bk. ii, ch. v. to say to me ? Those near enough to hear him 
cried, " We wish thou wouldst make us free forever, 
us, our heirs, and our lands, and that we should no 
longer be called serfs, nor held in bondage." The 
king answered : " I grant your wish ; now, therefore, 
return to your homes . . . leaving two or three men 
from each village, to whom I will order letters to be 
given, sealed with my seal, which they shall carry 
back with every demand you have made fully 
granted." Thirty secretaries were immediately set 
to work to draw up the freedom papers. 

Richard's Treachery. — The great majority of the 
people returned to the country quite content, for they 
had implicit confidence in the promise of the 
king. Wat Tyler, Jack Straw, and others of the 



The Peasants' Revolt 141 

leaders, with a considerable force of Kentish men, 

stayed behind to secure the charters of emancipation. 

Men from the remoter counties were still arriving, so 

that some twenty thousand peasants remained in the 

city. On Saturday morning the king, accompanied Conference at 

by a body of nobles well armed, rode out to Smith- Smithfield - 

field to meet these men. There Mayor Walworth 

picked a quarrel with Wat Tyler and felled him to 

the ground. It was a moment of supreme danger, 

for the peasants bent their bows upon the king's 

party. Young Richard did not lose his presence of 

mind. Riding forward, he addressed them right The Boys' 

royally : " Gentlemen, what are you about ? You BkTnTch. v 

shall have no other captain but me. I am your 

king. Remain peaceable." The crowd shrunk back 

ashamed, and made no further attempt to avenge 

their leader. The king would not allow his soldiers 

to attack the people, saying that he would have 

ample revenge in the end. 

The Insurgents Punished. — When safe in the city 
once more, Richard had a proclamation made through 
all the streets, ordering that every man who was 
not an inhabitant of London should instantly depart 
to his own place, and further, that any peasants 
found in the city on Sunday morning would be 
arrested as traitors and have their heads cut off. 
John Ball and Jack Straw were put to death. Their 
heads, together with that of Wat Tyler, were fixed 
on London Bridge as a warning to evil doers. Royal 
officers were then sent into the insurgent districts 



142 



The National Awakenim 




Plowing. 




C ■£ -XT * * 

C ^ ^ TO W 
* ^ "^ U V 




Harrowing. 




Sowing. 



Deposition of Richard II 143 

with orders to deal out summary punishment to the 
serfs who had taken part in the rebellion. Parlia- 
ment declared the charters of liberation null and charters of 
void, and pardon was extended to the lords and gen- recalied Pa 1#D 
tlemen who, in the emergency, had taken the law 
into their own hands and stabbed or hanged their 
bondsmen. In vain the people pleaded the king's 
promises, given at Mile-end. Richard's answer was 
a pitiless avowal of the false part he had played. 
" Serfs you are and serfs you will remain." 

The Final Victory. — So the rising of the peasants 
was crushed in blood and the ignorant people were 
outwitted by their masters. Yet it was not a final 
defeat. The freedom the serfs had demanded was 
soon to be theirs. Fear of another rising made the 
lords hesitate to exact the hated services. They dis- 
covered, moreover, that free labor was really cheaper 
in the end, because it could be had whenever and 
wherever needed. The feudal dues were gradu- 
ally abandoned, and the estates came to be cultivated 
in part by free peasants owning or renting the land, 
in part by wage-paid laborers working under direc- 
tion of the lord's agent. By the sixteenth century 
there were few serfs remaining in England. 

Section 3. The Deposition of Richard II 
Misgovernment. — As for the handsome young 

Shake- 

king, he showed himself daring, false, and cruel to speare's 
others beside the poor peasants. He was restless 



144 The National Awakening 

under the Council of Regency appointed to carry on 
the government until he came of age, and flouted 
their authority on every occasion. He quarrelled 
with his powerful uncle, the Duke of Lancaster, and 
the other great nobles, and placed his confidence in 
unworthy favorites. He gave away the royal estates 
to foreigners and squandered on the pleasures of 
the court the money voted by Parliament for the 
conduct of the war with France. When the Commons 
made humble remonstrance, the king treated their 
advice with contempt. Asked to remove the obnox- 
ious ministers, he replied that he would not at the 
Commons' request dismiss a servant from his kitchen. 

The Merciless Finally, all classes were driven into opposition. 

i 3 88. In the Merciless Parliament, the Lords and Com- 

mons united in the endeavor to restrain the king 
and prevent the royal extravagance. Richard's 
friends and councillors were impeached and deposed 
or condemned to death, and the government was 

Lords placed in the hands of trusted men. But in the fol- 

Ordainers. . . ,11 

lowing year the king was able to turn the tables. 
He suddenly declared himself of age and capable 
of reigning alone. Eight years of peace followed, 
The French war was finally brought to an end. 
The taxes were consequently less burdensome, and 
the people more content. Furthermore, a truce 
was patched up between the king's party and the 
great lords. 

Richard's Enemies. — In 1397, however, the quar- 
rel broke out anew. Richard, fearing treason, now 



Deposition of Richard IT 145 

ordered the arrest of several of the opposition party, 
and they were beheaded or banished from the realm. 
Among the exiled nobles was Henry Bolingbroke, Henry 
son of the Duke of Lancaster and first cousin to the 
king. When the old duke died, Richard took 
possession of the estates, declaring his cousin dis- 
inherited. Bolingbroke was justly popular, and the 
wrong done him was hotly resented by his friends. 

Richard was fast losing the confidence of the 
nation. The common people hated him because he 
had betrayed their trust, while the men of wealth Froissart, 
lamented the disorder into which the kingdom chs . CV i- 
had fallen. The king's courts were closed, and CXVI 
the judges ' of the shire courts were forced to 
give sentence in the royal interest. The law was 
openly defied. Men said: ''Times are sadly changed 
for the worse since the days of King Edward of 
happy memory. Justice was then swift in punishing 
the wicked. Then there was no man in England 
daring enough to take a fowl or a sheep without 
paying for them, but now they carry off all things 
and we must not speak. This cannot go on with- 
out ruining the country, and yet no one attempts to 
check it, We have a good-for-nothing king, who 
attends only to his idle pleasures." 

The Nation's Revolt. — It was the citizens of Lon- 
don who first plucked up courage to move against 
the king. Remembering how Edward II had been 
set aside, they determined to rid the land of Richard. 
They took advantage of the king's absence in Ireland, 



146 



The National Awakening 



Henry's 
landing. 



and sent a messenger to Henry Bolingbroke, then 
in exile at the court of France, beseeching him to: 
come to the aid of the distressed kingdom. They 
promised to provide him with men and money if he 
would but come. Nothing loath, Henry crossed the 
Channel, landed at Ravenspur, and, arriving safe in 
London, was received with great enthusiasm by the 




Parliament assembled for the Deposition of Richard i: 



Richard's 
surrender. 



citizens. " The whole town was so rejoiced at the 
earl's return, that every shop was shut, and no more 
work done than if it had been Easter day." An army 
of twelve thousand men, well armed and mounted, was 
sent to meet the king, who had just landed at Bristol. 
No battle was fought, for Richard was persuaded by 
his faint-hearted supporters first to retire to Conway 



Deposition of Richard II 1 47 

Castle and then to surrender to Lancaster and go 
with him to London. 

Once a prisoner in the Tower, Richard could do 
no less than consent to everything that was asked 
of him. He listened meekly to the charges of mis- 
government brought against him, and readily con- 
sented to yield the crown to his "fair cousin " Henry. 
He hoped thus to save his life, but without avail. 
Within the year, Richard died, probably by foul play, 
in that same Tower where he had planned the un- 
doing of the peasants. 

Books for Study 

Trevelyan, England in the Age of Wy cliff e, ch. VI. 
Cheyney, Industrial and Social History of England, ch. V. 
Froissarfs Chronicles, Johnes Translation. 

Suggestive Questions 

Section i. — State the grievances (1 ) of the serfs, (2) of the 
wage-laborers, (3) of the journeymen and apprentices. What 
was the object (1) of the Statute of Laborers ? (2) of the 
laborers 1 unions ? 

Section 2. — What were the causes of the peasants' revolt ? 
Do you sympathize with John Ball's preaching ? What do you 
think of the part played by Richard ? 

Section 3. — Compare the circumstances of Richard Ii's 
deposition with the deposition of Edward II. What was Henry 
Bolingbroke"s claim to the crown ? 

Special Topics 

The Black Death. Gasquet, The Great Pestilence. 
A fourteenth century manor. Roger's Work and Wages, 
Chapter II. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE WARS OF THE ROSES 

God knows, my son, 
By what by-paths and indirect crook'd ways 
I met this crown ; and I myself know well 
How troublesome it sat upon my head. 
To thee it shall descend with better quiet, 
Better opinion, better confirmation ; 
For all the soil of the achievement goes 
With me into the earth. 

— Shakespeare, Henry IV, Act IV, Sc. 5. 

The deposition of Richard did not settle the quar- 
rel. Edward II had been succeeded by his son, and 
there was no one to dispute his right to the throne; 
but Richard II had no son. The next in succession,' 
moreover, was not Henry of Lancaster, but Edmund 
Mortimer, grandson of Clarence. The strife between 
the rival houses J soon involved England in civil war. 
Henry's title depended on his election by Parliament. 
He and his successors were therefore obliged to 
recognize its authority in all matters affecting the 
government of the realm. 

Section i. The Lancastrian Kings 

Henry IV (1300-1413). -The first Lancastrian 
came to the throne pledged to good government. 

1 See footnote on following page. 



TJic Lancastrian Kinsrs 



149 



Richard had been deposed because he had failed to 
secure order. Henry was chosen king, first by the 
citizens of London and later by Parliament, in the 
hope that he would prove more successful. To 
the best of his ability he worked for peace and the 
enforcement of the law, but it was not easy to satisfy 
men's expectations. The great lords who had helped 



The rival dynasties: 



Edward III 



I I 

Edward the Clarence 
black Prince 

Philippa 



('.aunt 
I 



Richard II, 
1377-1399 



By Blanche of 
Lancaster, 
Henry IV, 

1 399-HI3 

I 
Henry V, 
1413-1422 

I 
Henry \ I, 
1422-14/1 

---Edward, 
slain at 
Tewkesbury, 
1471 



I 

By Katherine 

Swynford 

(illegitimate) 

I 

John Beaufort, 

Earl of Somerset 

John Beaufort, 
Duke of Somerset 



Margaret Beaufort, 
ni. Edmund Tudor, 
Earl of Richmond 

I 
Henry VII, 1 485- 1 509 



York 



Richard, Earl 
of Cambridge, 
in. Anne Morti- 
mer, beheaded, 
1415 
I 
Richard, 
Duke of York, 
slain at 
Wakefield, 1460 



Edmund Mortimer, Anne Mortimer 
Earl of March 



Edward IV, 

1461-1483 

I 



George, 

Duke of Clarence, 

murdered, 1478 



I I I 

Elizabeth, Edward V, Richard, 

m. murdered, 1483 

Henry VII Edward 



Margaret, 
Earl of Warwick, beheaded 
beheaded, 1499 1541 



I 
Richard III, Duke 
of Gloucester, 
1483-1485, 

slain at 

Bos worth, 

14S5 

I 

Edward, died, 

1484 



50 



The Wars of the Roses 



him mount the throne, Percy, the Earl of Northum- 
berland, and Neville, the Duke of Westmoreland, 
expected to be richly rewarded for their services. 
High places in the government and large sums of 
money secured their loyalty for a few years, but they 
were soon ready to take up arms against the king. 




Coronation of Henry IV. 



Shake- 
speare's 

Henry IV 
Pt. I. 



" Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown " was never 
more true than of the fourth Henry. 

Insurrection. — Pretext for revolt was soon found. 
Richard's death had been mysterious. People were 
easily persuaded to believe that he was still living, 
that he had escaped from his prison and was in hiding 
at the court of Scotland. A man who looked enough 



The Lancastrian Kings 151 

like Richard to serve as his counterfeit was put 
forward as the rightful king. The Scotch, always 
glad of a chance to cross the Border, armed in his 
interest. The king of France, who was father of 
Richard's queen and eager to injure Henry, sent a 
fleet to aid the pretender. 

The English malcontents found a better candidate. 
Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, had been held a Edmund 
prisoner in Windsor Castle from the beginning of 
Henry's reign, for, though but ten years of age, he 
was regarded as a dangerous rival. The Percies of 
Northumberland now declared for him and sum- 
moned their vassals to rise in his behalf. The Welsh, 
who had been friendly to Richard, seized this oppor- 
tunity for revolt. Smarting under the contemptuous 
injustice with which Henry treated them, they rose 
against him and declared their leader, Owen Glendower, 
Prince of Wales. The English had such difficulty in 
reaching the mountain strongholds where the clans had 
entrenched themselves that they believed Glendower 
a wizard who was able to summon the mists and the 
snow to fight on his side. Again and again they 
were forced back to the Marches with heavy loss. 
Scotch, French, Welsh, and malcontent English 
played into one another's hands and had good hope 
of destroying the usurper. 

Triumph of Lancaster. — In face of this formidable 
array of enemies, Henry could rely on the steady 
support of the English people, who cared more for 
peace and prosperity than for the interests of any 



152 The Wars of the Roses 

prince, however good his hereditary title. A series 
of brilliant victories forced the Percies to submit, for 
the time being, and induced the Welsh and Scotch 
to recognize once more the English rule. Mortimer 
died childless in 1424, and his claim to the crown 
passed to his sister's son. 

Henry had succeeded in his task. One by one his 
enemies were outwitted, reconciled, or destroyed, and 
the realm was won for the house of Lancaster. But 
the struggle wore out the king's life. He was always 
haunted by secret doubts as to his right to the crown. 
Gloomy and suspicious of friend and foe, jealous even 
of his own son, the usurper had little pleasure in his 
success, 
shake- Henry had always hoped to atone for his deeds of 

Henry iv, violence by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, but the 
iv, sc. 4. anxieties of his reign prevented. When he came to 
die he asked to be carried to the Jerusalem Cham- 
ber at Westminster, and there he breathed his last 
troubled breath. 

Henry V(i4i3-i422). — " Prince Hal" was made for 
popularity. But twenty-five years of age, brave and 
generous and gay, he won friends at every turn. 
His youth was wild and wayward, but no sooner was 
he crowned king than he put aside folly and devoted 
serious attention to the business of the realm. It 
was natural that a young and ambitious king, with a 
well-stocked treasury and a loyal nation at his dis- 
posal, should renew the war with France. There 
was sufficient pretext in the fact that the French 



The Lancastrian Kings 



153 



king had disputed his father's title to the throne, but 
Henry was not content merely to avenge this insult. 
He revived the third Edward's dubious title to the shake 
French crown. There was no shadow of justifica 



speare's 
Henry V. 




Henry V as a Boy. 



tien in the claim, but Henry found the kingdom 
ready for the enterprise. The miseries of the previ- 
ous war had been forgotten. 

The French War. — France was in no condition to 
resist invasion. The king, Charles VI, was an imbe- 
cile. The great nobles were divided into two hostile 



154 The Wars of the Roses 

factions, ready to sacrifice the kingdom in their bittei 
strife. The people were reduced to the verge of 
starvation by heavy taxes, and pestilence ravaged the 
land. There was some show of right in Henry's 
assertion that he was making a crusade against the 
vices of France. 

The English army crossed the Channel in 141 5 
They were thirty thousand men, four-fifths of them 
skilled bowmen. Landing at the mouth of the Seine, 
Henry took possession of Harfleur and made his 
way north, seeking opportunity to give battle to the 
French. He came up with them at Agincourt, a 
place not far from Cressy. The battle was a repeti- 
tion of that famous encounter. The English archers, 
ragged and dusty, barefoot many of them, made no 
brave show, but they were trained marksmen. The 




Jousting. 

French force was made up wholly of noblemen and 
their retainers, all mounted, and mailed in shining 
armor. The offer of the towns to send a force of 
infantry had been proudly rejected by the haughty 
lords. They soon had reason to repent their foolish 




yfrMfo'^ga^ , 



AVcst 5 



Longitude from 6 GreenVic 



EKGHA.'ED Br fcOSHAY i ( 



The Lancastrian Kings 155 

pride. The battle was opened by a flight of arrows 
from the English ranks. The French commander 
gave the order to charge, but the knights stood 
immovable. Mired in the mud of plowed fields, 
they could not advance. The horses struggled and 
plunged and fell. Their masters rolled upon the 
ground, weighted down by their coats of mail. Then 
the English archers threw aside their bows and, seiz- 
ing battle-axes, fell upon the French as they lay. 
The sound of their blows was like that of black- 
smiths hammering upon so many anvils. Ten thou- 
sand Frenchmen, most of them of noble blood, were 
killed that day. The English lest but sixteen hun- 
dred men. 

The conquest of the country was easy after that. 
The towns of Normandy were taken one by one. 
Rouen, the capital, held out a long time, hoping for 
succor, but starvation forced the citizens to surrender 
in the end. Finally France sued for peace. Henry Treaty of 
was accepted as heir to Charles VI, and was given 
his daughter Katherine in marriage. The adminis- 
tration of the unhappy kingdom was to be in Henry's 
hands. 

Henry VI (1422-1471). — Hardly had Henry V 
reached this summit of his ambition when death 
overtook him. Worn out by the hardships of the 
campaign, he died only two months before the 
crazy king whose throne he was to inherit. 

His death was a heavy blow to England. The 
Prince of Wales was but nine months old. The 



i 5 6 



The Wars of the Roses 




The Lancastrian Rings, 157 

queen was disliked as a foreigner and had little 
influence. The king's uncles, who were intrusted 
with the government of the two kingdoms, could not 
carry on the work of Henry V. 

The Loss of French Possessions. — In France, affairs 
went rapidly from bad to worse. The treaty of 
Troyes had been ratified by the king and a faction 
of the nobles, but found no favor with the people. 
They were Loyally French and had no mind to be 
governed by a hated Englishman. They found their 
leader in a peasant girl, Joan of Are, who believed Joan of Arc 
that she was sent by God t<> place the dauphin on Twam. 
the throne. All France south of the Loire declared 
for Charles VII, and an English army sent to take 
Orleans was beaten back with heavy loss. Joan then 
forced a way to Rheims and crowned Charles king 1429. 
in the heart of the enemy's country. This was the 
last achievement of the peasant maid. She was soon 
after taken prisoner and tried as a witch. To the 
English mind nothing but sorcery could account for 
her extraordinary victories. Found guilty by her 
hostile judges, she was burned in the market-place 
at Rouen. It was a cowardly revenge to take on 
a woman whose only fault was zealous devotion to 
her country. 

Thereafter, all went badly for the English cause. 
Pestilence and famine paralyzed the armies. The 
resources of England were exhausted and there was 
no money to pay the troops. Weary of the war, the 
people protested against the inefficiency of the minis- 



i 5 8 



The II an of the R 



foolishly holding then) responsible for all that 

went wrong. 

Meantime the spirit of patriotism wa> spreading 

through France ami uniting all factions in support of 







. \ i. 



Charles. Paris was won in [436, Rouen and Not 

mandy in 1440. Finally England was forced to 
agree to an armistice. The claim to the throne 

abandoned. Young Henry was married to a French 



prii Vnjou, and tlu- great provin 

ol Maine and Anjou as the 

price of j When soon after Bordeaux and Lossofthe 

i i lit i ^ 

Bayonne were lost, ( alaia alone, ol all the territory provinces. 

won by Edward III, remained to England. 

Domestic Difficulties. — At home, meantime, matters 

wei - badly. Henry was unselfish and 

well intentioned. He had been carefully educated, 

and might, in happier times, have been a loved and 

trusted kin.;, hut lie had not Strength ol body and 

mind | the heavy responsibilities early thrust 

upon him. lie had been crowned king of England 
at seven years oi age, and kin- ol France at ten, 
Again and again while still a mere child he n 
[led upon to make peace between tin- rival parti 
at court. Hardly had he come when he found 

^ a dynastic controversy brewing. Richard Plantagenet, Richard, 
Duke of York, derived his title from tin- youngest son York. 

ol Edward III. but his mother. Anne Mortimer, was 
of the house oi March. He was a man <>t great 
ability and very popular. Queen Margaret, however, 

distrusted and hated him and had him appointed 
lord deputy of Ireland tor the purpose "t getting 
him out of the way. The plot tailed, for York's 
generous policy won him the hearts .»t the Irish, 
while he was not forgotten by the English people. 
Cade's Rebellion. With the close of the war. a 
wd of disappointed knights and ragged soldiers 
returned from France bent on bettering their broken 
fortune Familiar with bloodshed and robbery, 



6o 



The Wars of the Roses 



having little respect for law, the}' were ready to fight 
for any leader who offered a sufficient reward. 

Their opportunity was at hand. In 145 1, the com- 
mons of Kent r<>se in open protest against misgovern- 
ment. Marching Oil London under the lead of Jack 
Cade, an Irishman who took the name of Mortimer, 
they presented to the king a formal demand lor the 
dismissal of the unpopular ministers and the recall 




R0AS1 ING "\ \ Mil. 



of the Duke of York. The citizens of London sym- 
pathized with the insurgents, and the ki: -reed 
to yield the obnoxious favorites to their vengeance. 
The people's victory was, however, hut a brief one. 
Having placated the insurgents by fair promises, the 

king's officers seized the first chance to scatter their 
troops. Cade was hunted down and put to death as 
a "disreputable adventurer." 

In some respects the rising was similar to the 
peasants' revolt, but the reforms asked for were 
not the same. There was no protest against servile 
dues, because there were no mure serfs in Kent. 



U War |6l 

Si i tion 2. Civil War 

Misgovernment. - -In 145 J, I [enry fell ill of a brain 
trouble that lasted, with brief intervals of sanity, all 

the rest «>t his lite. A son and heir, Edward, was 

born t<> him, but the poor king was sunk in letharg 

and took no notice of the child. Queen Margaret snake- 

a harsh, ambitious woman. Always French at He^ry % vt. 
heart, she cared more for her son's succession than 
for the well-being of England. The king's uncle, 
Gloucester, was a selfish and foolish man, who had 
always a quarrel on hand. The barons were am- 
bitious and unruly, bent OH enlarging their estates 
and Increasing the number of their retainers. The 
Leading families had grown so powerful that no one 
d;ired enforce the law against them. The sheriffs 
were powerless and the shire courts not infrequently 
witnessed scenes of violence and bloodshed. Even 
the sessions <>t Parliament were sometimes disgraced 

by mad outbreaks. There was need <»t a strong man 
at the head of the government. 

York, Protector of the Realm. — In 1454, York re- 
turned from Ireland and claimed the protectorate. 
When the queen jealously resisted his right to the 
chief place in the government and conspired against 
him, he took up arms in self defence. York was sup- 
ported by the citizens of London, who complained 
bitterly of the " want of governance," and by south- 
eastern England. The citizens, however, were not 
willing to shed blood in his cause. The fighting 



1 62 The Wars of the Roses 

material was supplied by the barons and their re- 
tainers. Glad of an opportunity to be at war, the 
great lords chose sides as private interest or family 
connection might determine, and fought for the Red 
Rose of Lancaster or the White Rose of York with 
a bitterness and ferocity never equalled in English 
history. Queen Margaret depended upon the Beau- 
forts, the younger branch of the Lancastrian house, 
First battle and upon the Percies and the north country. The 

of St. Albans, . . _ __ . . , , 

1455. victory of St. Albans put \ ork in control of the 

government, and important reforms were set on foot; 
but he brought forward as yet no claim for the 
crown. 

Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick. — Among the 
men who came to the front in this wild strife of 
Englishmen against Englishmen, the only one who 
seems to have put the well-being of the nation above 
the success of his party was the great Earl of War- 
wick. He was the most powerful nobleman in Eng- 
land. By inheritance and by marriage, he had come 
into possession of vast estates scattered over the 
length and breadth of the kingdom. In the midland 
shires alone, one hundred and fifty manors owed him 
fealty. Five hundred mounted retainers formed his 
body-guard, and six oxen were slaughtered daily to 
provide for his breakfast-table. Thousands of knights 
had pledged themselves to serve him in case of need 
and to follow, when the call came, his standard of 
the bear and the ragged staff. Notwithstanding his 
power, Warwick was so frank and cordial in his 



Civil War 



163 



ways, and so considerate of lesser men, that he be- 
came the idol of the people. 

The Champions of Order driven into Exile. — War- 
wick was related to the house of Lancaster, but he 




Joust between an Earl of Warwick and a Mighty Duke 
Bl fore Emperor Sigismund. 

Notice the bear and ragged staff. 



cared for law and order more than kin. He therefore 
gave his support to the Duke of York, and fought 
by his side at St. Albans. When Richard, driven i 459 . 
once more from power by the plots of the court party, 



6 4 



The Wars of the Roses 



1459 sought refuge in Ireland, Warwick too was obliged 

to flee the kingdom. Accompanied by a few faith- 
ful friends, he purchased a little fishing schooner 
and sailed to Calais. There he was joyously re= 
ceived, for he had been governor of the garrison, and 




English Ships of War in the Fifteenth Century, 



the best efforts of the queen could not dislodge him. 
Warwick had once served as admiral of the king's 
fleet detailed to guard the Channel. In carrying 
out this duty he had been so daring and so suc- 
cessful that he won great fame with the sailor folk. 
When now the king's ships were sent against him, 




4 TVest 3 Longitude 2 from 1 



ENGRAVE.0 BY BOHMA> & CO. 



Civil War 165 

the men threatened to mutiny if forced to fight their 
old commander, and the expedition was abandoned. 

Warwick's Victory. — Once more in command of 
an army, Warwick arranged with York, who had 
been assembling his followers in Ireland, for a fresh 
attack on the queen. Landing at Sandwich, he 
found Kent ready to rise at his call. Four days' 
march brought him to London. The Lancastrian 
lords could not prevent the citizens from throwing 
open the gates. Henceforth the city was the 
rallying point of the White Rose. The king's 
forces were gathering meantime at Northampton, and Battle of 

Northamproi 

thither Warwick marched to meet them. Before the i 4 6o. 
battle, he gave orders that the common soldiers were 
to be spared. None should be slain but the knights 
and lords, who alone were responsible for the quarrel. 
Treachery gave the day to the White Rose. The Treachery 
ragged staff was displayed over the city, and War- 
wick's men were assisted to scale the walls. Nearly 
all the Lancastrian leaders were slain, the king was 
taken prisoner, but Margaret and young Edward 
escaped to north Wales. 

Queen Margaret fights for her Son. — Henry was 
carried to London, and there a Parliament was 
assembled to settle the affairs of the kingdom. The 
Duke of York, who had arrived too late to take part 
in the battle, now boldly claimed the crown, but 
Warwick protested and forced him to abide by his 
oath of allegiance. It was arranged that York 
should be protector of the realm during Henry's 



1 66 The Wars of the Roses 

lifetime and heir to the throne. The rights of Prince 
Edward were set aside. 

The people of London were well content and 
shouted, " Long live King Henry and the Earl of 
Warwick ! " Queen Margaret, however, protested 
the settlement and fought like a lioness in behalf 
of her son. She appealed to the Scots to cross the 
Border, and summoned the Percies and their wild 
following to her aid. The men of the northern 
shires were won to her cause by the promise that 
the rich south country would be theirs to pillage. 

The protector's army met the queen's troops at 
Battle of Wakefield and was completely routed. York and the 

Wakefield, J 

i 4 6o. great men of his party were slain. Their heads were 

fixed above the gates of York, Richard's adorned, in 
cruel derision, with a paper crown. 

Queen Margaret's Victory. — Meanwhile, Warwick 
was gathering the men of southern England to 
the defence of London. Carrying with him the 
helpless king, he encountered the Lancastrian army 
second Battle at St. Albans. Treachery this time played the White 
1461. ' Rose false. Warwick's army was put to flight, 

and King Henry was recaptured as he sat under 
a great oak tree, smiling to see the Yorkists beaten. 
Queen Margaret took a cruel revenge on the knights 
who had been responsible for the king's person. 
Summoning them to her presence, she condemned 
them to death. Then turning to her eight-year-old 
son, she said, " Fair son, what manner of death shall 
these knights whom you see here die ? " The boy 



Civil War 167 

answered, " Let them have their heads taken off," 
and this was immediately done. These were wild 
times in which the very children became familiar 
with deeds of blood. 

Edward of York proclaimed King. — The cause of 
the Red Rose had triumphed, but the Lancastrians 
seemed unable to reap the fruits of their victory. 
London lay within thirteen miles of St. Albans, but 
the king hesitated to attack the city and sent envoys 
to treat for a peaceful entry. Meanwhile, the motley 
collection of troopers and vagabonds that formed 
Margaret's army grew restless and unmanageable. 
They could not be restrained from pillage. Dread The South 

declares for 

of the havoc they might work decided London and York, 
the southern shires to fight for the lost cause. War- 
wick summoned new bands of his retainers from the 
midlands. Edward, Earl of March, the nineteen- 
year-old son of Duke Richard, came from the west 
with some ten thousand men of the Marches. The 
great earl and the young prince were received with 
joy by the Londoners. The remnant of a Parlia- 
ment was quickly got together and Edward was pro- 
claimed king. Strange to say, no resistance was 
made. The Lancastrian army, far from laying siege 
to London, retreated northward, plundering, slaying, 
and burning as they went. 

The Lancastrians scattered. — Warwick and King 
Edward set out in hot pursuit, with an army of 
forty-eight thousand men. They came up with the 
Lancastrians, now sixty thousand strong, at Towton 



1 68 The Wars of the Roses 

Field. The chivalry of England was gathered for 
the battle. 

A south wind fought for the White Rose and 
blew a blinding snow full in the faces of the Lan- 
Battieof castrian host. They could not see their foe, nor 
m6i. ' would their arrows carry far. Driven slowly back 

across the field, they stubbornly contested every 
inch of the ground, but, after seven hours' desperate 
fighting, broke and fled. A swollen river lay in their 
path, and thousands were drowned in attempting to 
ford it. Of those who crossed over, many were slain 
in their mad flight to York. Thirty thousand Eng- 
lishmen fell that day, fully two-thirds of them Lan- 
castrians. King Henry, Queen Margaret,- and the 
Flight of the little prince fled with a mere handful of retainers to 
Scotland. When Edward rode into York the next 
day, the head of his murdered father still hung over 
the gate. The king showed himself fully of War- 
wick's mind in sparing the commons, and no ven- 
geance was taken on the city that had harbored his 
foes. 

Conquest of the North. — For two years longer War- 
wick was occupied in the pacification of the north. 
The Lancastrian leaders were seized and executed 
and their heads sent to be fixed on London Bridge 
The castles garrisoned by Margaret's troops were 
reduced. Last to yield was Bamborough, a Norman 
keep on the North Sea. Against this stronghold 
were brought the siege guns lately sent to the front 
by Edward's order. It took but a few cannon balls 



Civil War 



169 



to shatter the stone walls and force the garrison to 
surrender. Edward was the first English king to 
make effective use of artillery, and it gave him an 
enormous advantage over the feudal levies. Mailed 




Use of Siege Towers, Cannon, and Crossbows in Attack 
on a Walled Town. 

armor furnished no protection against the new 
weapon. 

Warwick quarrels with his King. — Worsted on 
every hand, the Lancastrians fled to cover. Mar- 
garet and her son found refuge in France. Henry 
wandered for some time about the moors of the Border, 
but was finally taken prisoner and confined in the 
Tower. The triumph of Edward seemed complete, 
but his head was turned by success, and his conduct 



170 The Wars of the Roses 

soon alienated his stanchest supporters. No prince 
born to the throne could have been gayer or more 
self-confident than he. His democratic manners and 
luxurious manner of life endeared him to the Lon- 
don merchants, but the people protested against the 
burdensome taxes and the king's disregard of law. 
They began to complain that Lancastrian " want of 
governance " was no worse than the "reckless mis- 
rule of a York." The great lords were offended 
when Edward put aside the high-born brides pro- 
posed for him and married a beautiful Lancastrian 
lady, Elizabeth Woodville. Ignoring the claims of 
the men who had fought his battles for him, Edward 
showered favors upon her relatives. The queen's 
father, Lord Rivers, was dubbed an earl and ap- 
pointed treasurer of the kingdom. 

At last Warwick himself was angered by the per- 
sonal slights put upon him and by the utter folly of 
the young monarch. The great earl was negotiating 
a permanent peace with France, but Edward pri- 
vately proposed to renew the war. Twice were the 
negotiations broken off because of a counterplot of 
the king's. 

Restoration of Henry VI. — Trouble began with 
insurrections in York and in Lincolnshire. These 
were readily put down, but Edward believed War- 
wick responsible for the risings, and declared him 
an outlaw. The earl escaped to Calais, taking 
with him Edward's brother Clarence. Louis XI, 
the wily French king, brought about a meeting 



Civil War 



I7i 



between Edward, the king-maker, and Queen Mar- Queen 

Margaret in 
alliance with 



Warwick. 



garet. Spite of the bloodshed between them, they 
agreed to work together for the restoration of Henry. 
The strange partnership proved successful. Landing 
in Devon, where the Lancastrian cause was popular, 
Warwick soon had an army at his back. He met 
King Edward at Nottingham, but no battle was Edward in 

Exile. 

fought. Treachery 
gave the day to the 
Red Rose, and Ed- 
ward, accompanied 
by a handful of his 
followers, escaped 
oversea. 

Within eleven 
days of his landing, 
Warwick was mas- 
ter of England. 
The city of London 
received him with 
every sign of rejoic- 
ing. Henry was 

taken from the Tower and once more proclaimed 
king. The poor old man was far from royal in 
aspect. " He sat on his throne," says the chronicler, 
" as limp and helpless as any wool-sack." In reality 
there was small enthusiasm for the restored Lancas- 
trian. The merchants, especially, missed Edward's 
handsome presence and familiar ways and the lavish 
expenditure of his court. Warwick was in control of 




Henry VI. 



172 The Wars of tJic Roses 

the government for five months. He did his best to 
reconcile all factions to the restored dynasty and to 
bring disorder to the troubled land, but in vain. The 
Lancastrian lords distrusted him and did all they 
dared to thwart his plans. 

Restoration of Edward IV. — In the spring of 1471, 
Edward landed at Ravenspur, announcing, as Henry 
Bolingbroke had done, that he came only to claim 
his private estates. The friends of the White Rose 
joined him by thousands, and he was soon in com- 
mand of an army. Warwick had the mortification of 
seeing his most trusted friends desert to his foe. 
Even Clarence, " false, fleeting, perjured Clarence," 
entered into negotiations with his brother. 

Marching rapidly south, Edward appeared at the 
gates of London and was admitted without protest. 
Once established in the city, with Henry safe in the 
Tower, Edward turned to meet the Earl of Warwick. 
Battle of The fateful battle took place at Barnet. Warwick 
commanded in person, fighting on foot among his men. 
The victory of the Red Rose seemed assured, when 
on a sudden the cry of treason was raised. It was a 
false alarm, but such a turn of affairs was more than 
likely when old foes were fighting side by side and 
each man suspected his fellow. The Lancastrians 
fled in dismay. Warwick, left alone, unable to run 
in his heavy armor, was overtaken and slain. Six- 
teen years of warfare in the cause of good govern- 
ment had brought the great earl to this. His life 
ended in failure because he sought to cure law- 



Downfall of the House of York 173 

lessness by revolt — a remedy worse than the 
disease. 

Ruin of the Lancastrians. — Meantime Queen Mar- 
garet had landed at Weymouth. Edward marched to 
intercept her, and the rival armies met at Tewkesbury. Battle of 
There Prince Edward, the hope of the Lancastrians, i 4 e 7 ^ ' 
was slain, and the remaining chiefs of the party were 
destroyed. Margaret was taken prisoner. The old 
king, helpless and harmless now, one would think, 
was soon after murdered in the Tower. The ruin 
of the Lancastrians seemed complete. One man 
only of the line survived. Henry Tudor, son of 
Margaret Beaufort and the Earl of Richmond, could 
boast that the blood of John of Gaunt flowed in his 
veins. There was no safety for him in England after 
Tewkesbury, and he sought refuge in Brittany. 



Section 3. Downfall of the House of York 

Last Years of Edward IV. — The crown won by so 
much bloodshed was worn with peril. Edward could 
secure himself against conspiracy only by new violence. 
Clarence, who was suspected of plotting for the suc- 
cession, was thrown into the Tower and died shortly 
after under suspicious circumstances. The king, 
moreover, was obliged to resort to harsh measures 
to secure money for his magnificent household. 
Heavy taxes were imposed on the poor. Men of Benevo- 
wealth were forced to loan money with no prospect 
of repayment. 



174 



The Wars of the Roses 



Yet Edward retained his popularity. His interest 

in trade won for him the title of the Merchant 

Prince, and he loved to be thought a patron of art 

The Eari and letters. He even condescended to take an in- 

Printer, . . 

by Guernsey, terest in the printing-press just introduced into 
England by Caxton. 



i&^l^ 




Lord Rivers presenting Caxton to Edward IV. 



Edward V (1483, April 9-June 25). — Edward IV 
died in the prime of life, his plans for establishing 
his house on a firm foundation only half perfected. 
His son was but thirteen years of age. Edward V 
had been carefully educated in accordance with his 
father's directions. Even at mealtime there must 



Downfall of the House of York 



75 



be read to him " noble stories such as behooveth a 
prince to understand." All conversation in his pres- 
ence was to be "of virtue, honor, cunning, wisdom, and 

Signature of Edward V. 

deeds of worship, and of nothing that shall move him 
to vice." His signature does credit to a boy of his years. 
The little king was destined, however, to a short 
and troubled reign. Richard, Earl of Gloucester, 
younger brother of Edward IV, was declared pro- 
tector. The Wood- 




The Princes in the Tower. 



villes were re- 

i 

moved from court, 
and Queen Eliza- 
beth took refuge 
in the monastery 
at Westminster. 
Richard professed 
the utmost loyalty 
to the heir appar- 
ent, and great prep- 
arations were 
made for his coro- 
nation. Before the 
day arrived, how- 
ever, the mask was 

Cast aside. Ed- 



Richard of 
Gloucester. 



176 The Wars of the Roses 

ward's friends were arrested and put to death, while 
he and his little brother were thrown into the Tower. 
A concourse of time-serving nobles and unthinking 




Richard III. 



populace was then got together and induced to declare 
Richard king. 

The deed was too shameless even for those unscru- 



Downfall of the House of York 177 

pulous times, and England showed signs of discon- 
tent. From Kent to Devonshire, the friends of King 
Edward bestirred themselves in behalf of his sons. 
Then Richard announced that the children had dis- 
appeared. No man knows the manner of their death, 
but there is little doubt that they were murdered by 
their uncle's order. 

Richard III (1483-1485). — As king, Gloucester 
showed himself both able and cunning. He set 
about winning the favor of high and low. Friends 
were rewarded and foes conciliated, by gifts and 
titles. The king heard in person the complaints of 
the poor, and Parliament was encouraged to pass 
some measures of reform. But his evil course had 
made Richard many enemies and his crown was in 
jeopardy from the outset. No sooner was his title 
protested by Henry Tudor than all England was 
ready for revolt. When Henry landed at Milford Henry of 
Haven, even the Welsh flocked to his standard, proud 
that the blood of King Arthur flowed in his veins. 
Richard, on the other hand, found difficulty in col- 
lecting an army. He had despised Henry as "a 
man of small courage and of little skill in war," but 
his own courage and strategy availed him nothing, 
since he had failed to win the hearts of his subjects. 

The rivals met at Bosworth Field. Treachery Boswortn 
again decided the day, for the lords on whom the 
king most depended deserted to Henry. Richard 
fell fighting in the thick of his foes, and Henry was 
crowned on the very field of battle. 



178 The Wars of the Roses 



Books for Study 

Oman, Warwick. 

Thompson, The Wars of York and Lancaster. 

Suggestive Questions 

Section i. — How did Henry IV justify his usurpation of the 
throne ? Account for Henry V's conquest of the kingdom of 
France. Was his achievement an advantage to England ? 
Account for the success of the French under Joan of Arc. Com- 
pare the rising of the commons of Kent with the peasants' revolt. 

Section 2. — Why did Richard of York claim the protecto- 
rate ? Why did he claim the crown ? Why was Warwick called 
the kingmaker ? Why did he finally fail ? Is your sympathy 
with him or with Queen Margaret ? 

Section 3. — Did the house of York bring peace and good 
government to England ? 

Special Topics 

Joan of Arc. Mrs. Oliphant, Jeanne d^Arc. 
Caxton and the printing-press. Blades, Caxton. 
Effects of civil war. Denton, England in the Fifteenth 
Century. 



CHAPTER IX 

THE NEW ORDER IN STATE AND CHURCH 

Be sad, as we would make ye : think ye see 
The very persons of our history 
As they were living ; think you see them great, 
And follow'd with the general throng and sweat 
Of thousand friends ; then, in a moment, see 
How soon their mightiness meets misery : 
And, if you can be merry there, I'll say 
A man may weep upon his wedding-day. 
— Shakespeare, King Henry the Eighth, Prologue. 

Section i. The Rule of the Tudors 

A New King and a New Policy. — Henry Tudor Henry vn, 
was a cold, self-contained young man. The perils M 5 I5 
and difficulties of his early life had taught him 
caution and reserve. Like all of his house he had 
a will of his own, and he meant to rule unhampered 
by parliaments, but he realized that unless he was 
wary and prudent, the men who had put him upon 
the throne would quickly pull him down. In 
looking about for support he had the shrewdness 
to see that the surest reliance of his throne was the 
great middle class. Henceforth he strove in every 
way to further its interests. Order was sternly 
maintained, trade was protected, and the burdens 
of the government were thrown upon the great 

179 



maintenance. 



1 80 The New Order in State and Church 

barons, rather than upon the townspeople and 
small landowners. Henry's example was followed 
by the other Tudors, and throughout the sixteenth 
century the strength of the government lay in the 
close alliance between the crown and the powerful 
middle class. 
Henry and Henry was determined that no man in England 

the nobles. should be able to ma k e an d unmake kings at 

pleasure, as the Earl of Warwick had done. The 
power of the nobles lay in their bands of armed fol- 
statuteof lowers, so he made a law against the keeping of 
retainers, and he saw to it that the law was 
obeyed. On one occasion the king paid a visit to 
the Earl of Oxford, a very great nobleman. To 
do Henry honor the earl had called out all his house 
hold, and they made a fine show drawn up in two 
long lines. At the time the king said nothing, but 
when he came to depart he said to his host, " I 
thank you for your good cheer, my lord, but I 
may not endure to have my laws broken in my 
sight. My attorney must speak with you." The 
earl was forced to pay a fine of ;£ 15,000 for his 
breach of the law, and was fortunate to save his 
head. Henry could hardly have acted in this high- 
handed manner had not the use of cannon given 
the crown an advantage over the nobles. The king 
alone was able to maintain a train of artillery, and 
against this the spears and arrows of the baronial 
levy availed little. 

Even so the great barons were strong enough 



The Rule of the Tudors 



I8i 



to overawe the local courts which sought to call 

them to account for their misdoings. To remedy 

this Henry set up a new court at Westminster to deal 

with great offenders. In later times this Court of court of the 

the Star Chamber, as it was called from the room $l? lChlim - 

where it met, came to be feared by good men as 

well as bad, but at first it did the country a service 

in checking the lawlessness of nobles. 

Pretenders to the Throne. -Just what Henry 
feared soon came to pass. Many of the followers 
of the house of York did not like the turn affairs 
had taken, and they fell to plotting Henry's over- 
throw. In this they had the aid of the Duchess 
of Burgundy, the sister of Edward IV. As there 
was no Yorkist prince whom they could set up as 
a rival to the king, they were forced to provide pre- 
tenders. The first of these was Lambert Simnel, the Lambert 
son of a baker of Oxford. Simnel had been care- SlmneL 
fully trained by a Yorkist priest for the part of the 
Earl of Warwick, son of the Duke of Clarence, and 
who at this time was a prisoner in the Tower. In 
this case the imposture was easily proved. Henry 
brought out young Warwick from his prison and 
displayed him to the people. To show his contempt 
for the plot the king pardoned Simnel and made him 
a turnspit in the royal kitchen. The second attempt 
was more serious. A young sailor by the name of 
Perkin Warbeck gave himself out as the younger Perkin 
of the two princes murdered in the Tower. He had Warbeck - 
been prepared for his part by no less a person than 



TJu .". :. Order in State and Or.. 

the Duchess : Burgundy he :id he played it 

so well that many were deceived. The Iris: 

g :id he vned in 

Dublin Cathedral. He received with much 

honor by the kir_ - ::d and given as \ 

Scotch lady of high rank. Nevertheless, in the end 
::empt failed. The truth was the people 
of England v. s - :ired of war that thev were not 
in a mood to take up again the old quarrel of the 

- did not love Henrv, but at least under 

- 

him there was pe 

How Henry filled his Treasury. — Unlike son: 
the kings before him. H as not cruel. On the 

other hand, he loved money, not as a miser, but be- 
cause he could be more independent of Parliament if 
his treasury was full. So when any one disobeyed the 
king, instead of losing his head, he was obliged, like 
the Earl g fine. Again, Henry 

sometimes requested presents of money from wealthy 
individuals. These u benevole:. - they were 

called, were supposed to be ut in reality 

men had little choice in the matter. Cardinal Mor- 
ton, one of Henry's counsellors, devised a scheme for 
forcing people to give that was called M Morton's 
.eaning if a victim escaped one prong, i: 
to be caught on the other. When a man lived 
handsomely, the cardinal would say that it was plain 
that he had plenty of money, and therefore he ought 
to contribute to the king's needs. Or if a man 
g al in spending, then the cardinal argued he was 



para 7-'.:y. 



The Rule of the Tit dors I ; : 

surely saving up money, and hence could well afford 
to give. 

Henry VII disliked war ; it disturbed the 
the people, and it cost money, for which he v. 
have to ask Parliament. So he never fought if he 
could help it. To be sure, he was often on the point 
of war with Scotland or with France, but in the end 
jme concession he managed to maintain peace. 
He even succeeded in making money in this 
On one occasion he obtained a good sum of money 
from his subjects for the purpose of waging war with 
France, and then he wrung from the French 
another large grant for g his army at home, 

maintain peace. He ied chiefly upon alli- 

ances. Thus he married his elder daugh- _aret 

to James IV of Scotland and his son Arthur to Cathe- 
rine, da g :" Ferdi: a of Spain. 
Accession of Henry VIII. — At last this uneventful 
gn came to a s littk r.ourned, 
for his r - hard, and he lacked Edward IV s 

Ha 



d. 1502 

I. Tames IV. m. Margaret, m. 2. Lord Her 

" J VDJ 1 

James V, m. Man* of Margaret I 

Guise —es 

i — 1 Lac 

U* m. Darr 

James \ I of Scotland and 
James I of England 



1 5.1 77. Nea Stefc ind Ck 




r.ning 
r;vv."..iri:y. He 

had succeeded, 
in mak- 
ing the s . 
stronger than he 
had been for three 
centuries. There 
no class 
in the country able 
and willing to op- 
ting. The 
Church looked to 
the throne for sup- 
port; Henry had 
broken the : 
of the nobles, and 
the middle class 

long as peace and 
prosperity were 
red. 
Thv :nuch 

rejoicing over the 
The 
second Tudor was 
young and hand- 
some, abounding 
with life and 
energy. He could 



The Rule of the Tudors 

leap farther and shoot a straighter arrow than any man 
in England- Unlike his father he did not hold hin 
aloof, but met his subjects in an open, off-hand 
which won all hearts. Young Henry had the Tudor 
will and meant to do as he liked, but at the same 
time he wished to be popular, and he 
that he managed generally to get his own way with- 
out displeasing the people. At first he paid little 
attention to affairs of :>ut gave himself up to 

the plea- his r. . tion, spending the 

money his father had hoarded in fine clothes and 
. ous entertainmc 
The Rule of Cardinal Wolsey — T - :me 

whenThoma- . last of England's long line of 

ecclesiastical ~n, ruled in England. Like 

that other Thorn: s :nry lis friend. > of 

humble birth, but his great ability and ind; 
brought him rapidly to the front. Office after office 
howered upon him. At one and the same time 
he was chancellor, Archbishop of York, and cardi- 
nal. During the ear - of Her.: g nit was 
the minister not the king that governed the cou: 
One of the foreign ambassad London reported 
lsey that at first he .do 
so and so." Later i: - We shall do so and 
Finally he said frankly. " I shall do so and s 

- manner of living was magnificent. His woiseyimiids 
retinue numbered eight hundred. He built himself uterwiute- 
a fine palace where ght rooms before b * n * 

reaching the audience chamber. The 



186 



New Order i)i State and Church 



hung with tapestry which was changed weekly, and 
the sideboards were loaded with silver. But all his 
pomp and show were merely external. Behind was 
the shrewd, hard-working minister laboring to build 




Armor presented by the Emperor Maximilian to 
Henry VIII. 

up the power of the king at home and to make Eng- 
land the leading state in Europe. 

Success crowned YVolsey's efforts. The king's will 
was law in England as never before. Parliament 
rarely met, and still more rarely did it venture to 



The Rule of the Tit dors 






oppose the royal commands. The great nobles were 
cowed, for the slightest murmur of disloyalty brought 
the speaker to the block. In foreign relations there 
was a great change. Wolsey was as anxious to main- 
tain peace as Henry VII had been, and the only 
important battle of this period was Flodden Field, Fiodden 
where the Scotch were defeated and their king killed, scott'. * 
Nevertheless, 



England's fame abroad was 



greater c . 




Embarkation of Henry VIII at Dover for France. 



than it had been for half a century. At this time 
Charles V of Germany and the French king were 
often at war, and each was eager to win the alliance 
of England. On one occasion the king of France 
entertained Henry with such magnificence near 
Calais that the meeting place was known as the 
u Field of the Cloth of Gold." After a week of 
merrymaking the two monarchs parted on the best 
of terms, but within a month Henry had concluded 
a secret treaty with Charles against his late host. 
On the whole, however, it was Wolsey's aim to keep 



•■Field of tbe 
Cloth of 
Gold.- 



1 88 The New Ordei' in State and Church 

the peace by holding the balance between France 
and Germany. 

The Awakening of Europe. — The age of the 
Tudors was an interesting time in which to live. For 
a century or more the world had seemed to make 
little progress. Perhaps the terrible wars" used up 
people's energy. There were few discoveries, and 











The Field of the Cloth of Gold. 



Fall of 
Constanti- 
nople, 1453. 



few great enterprises were set on foot. In the uni- 
versities men studied and wrote, but not many of their 
books are read nowadays. Suddenly there came a 
change and the world waked up. Many things 
helped to bring about the Renaissance, as this awak- 
ening is called. While Henry VI still ruled in Eng- 
land, Constantinople fell before the Turks, who had 
long been battering at its walls. Scholars of the East, 
fleeing before the Mohammedan, made their way to 



The Rule of the Tudors 189 

Italy, bringing with them the wonderful writings of 
ancient Greece, until then almost unknown to west- 
ern Europe. A few years earlier, and only the privi- 
leged few could have profited by their coming, but 
now the printing-press made these treasures acces- The printing 
sible to all. Men began to read and study as they 
had not done for centuries. The sleepy old universi- 
ties felt the change, and teachers and students alike 
fell eagerly to learning Greek. 

Discovery and Exploration. — The noble literature 
of the Greeks was not the only inspiration of the 
time. To the people of the fifteenth century the 
known world was much smaller than it is now. The known 
There was some trade with India and China, but it fifteenth 
was carried on by Eastern merchants who brought to cen ury ' 
Europe the precious spices and silks of the Orient 
in their caravans, slowly moving overland, and few 
men of the West had ever' penetrated into'the storied 
lands of the Far East. Africa was still a dark con- 
tinent save where it bordered the Mediterranean, 
although Portuguese sailors were timidly creeping 
down the Atlantic coast into the southern seas. 

Of what lay beyond the waste of desolate waters 
bordering Europe on the west men knew nothing. 
The Atlantic was not a highway as it is to-day, but 
an impenetrable wall hemming in the land. Now 
and then, however, some sailor ventured a little way 
out on the unknown sea, and finally one man more Columbus 

discovers 

determined than the others steered boldly westward, America, 
until he discovered a new world. At once all was I492 ' 



IQO 



The New Order in State ami Church 



changed. Tales of the western wonderland stirred 
others to do what Columbus had done, and a spirit 




- --- i kaMra k Z--::-e 
J Coantries dimly known to Europe 
I I . • 



The World at the Acci Henry VII. 



of adventure seized upon sleepy old Europe. To 
England the discovery of America has meant more 



Tin Rule of the Tit dors 191 

than to any other European power, but at first Eng- 
lishmen showed little zeal for exploring the new world 
in the west. While Spanish and Portuguese and Backward- 
French sailors were eagerly following in the wake England, 
of Columbus, or striking out for themselves, the only 
enterprise in which England was concerned was the 
voyages of John and Sebastian Cabot, Genoese sail- mot. mqs. 
ors, who, aided by Henry VII, explored the coast of 
North America. At a later day, English claims 
territory in the New World were based on the dis 
eries of the Cabots, but at first little interest was 
shown. The truth was Englishmen of this time 
were very unlike their descendants of a century 
later. They were rather sluggish and stay-at-home, 
timid sailors, caring little for adventure. 

The Renaissance in England.— In the peaceful 
following the Wars oi . lishmen had 

time to think of other things than fighting, and the 
new movement in education aroused much intei 
Both the Henries, especially the younger, were friends 
of the New Learning, and some of the great church- 
men, such as Morton and Wols showed the same 
spirit. Chief among scholars was John Colet of 
Oxford, who after a short stay in Italy returned home 
fired with zeal to introduce the new ideas into the uni- 
versity ; but Colet's great work was done in the coiet and the 
schools, which were in sad need of reform, for the schools, 
discipline was brutal, and little of value was taught. 
Upon becoming Dean of St. Paul's he founded a 
grammar-school hard by the cathedral, where Greek 



192 The Xew Order in State and Church 

and Latin and mathematics were taught by the new- 
est and best methods, and where a flogging was not 
a necessary part of the day's programme. Colet's 




Old St. Pall's School. 

Founded by Colet, 1509. 



foundation of St. Paul's was the model of hundreds of 
grammar-schools which sprung up under Henry VIII 
and his successors, quite transforming the education 
of boys of the middle class. 
Erasmus. Another remarkable man was Erasmus, a Fleming 

who made his home in England. He was a poor 
boy without money and without friends, but long 
before he died he was known as the greatest scholar 
of the age. His zeal and ability overcame all diffi- 
culties. " I have given my whole soul to Greek 
learning," he wrote on one occasion, " and as soon 
as I get some money I shall buy Greek books and 
then I shall buy some clothes." He was working 



The Rule of the Tudors 



193 



and begging his way to Italy when he turned aside 
to England, and there he found patrons and friends, 
and there he remained studying and writing and 
lecturing for many years. 

Chief among the friends of Erasmus was Sir Thomas 
Thomas More, the most interesting and winning 




Sir Thomas More. 



of all this group of scholars. More's boyhood was 
spent in the household of Cardinal Morton, who 
prophesied great things of his little page. After a 
few years of study at Oxford, More turned his atten- 
tion to law, and became in time lord chancellor. 



194 The New Order in State and Church 

Henry VIII, who delighted in M ore's wit and learn- 
ing, spared no effort to keep him at court, but he 
preferred to spend his days with his children and 
his friends and his books. Of all his writings the 
rhe best remembered is the Utopia, a fanciful descrip- 

L topia. 

tion of the state of things in " Nowhere," a land 
where justice and happiness prevailed. With unspar- 
ing hand More set forth the grievous condition of 
England in contrast with the happy " Kingdom of 
Nowhere," of which he said he first heard from a 
sailor who had accompanied Amerigo Vespucci on 
his voyage to the New World. Nor did he stop with 
criticism, for he suggested many reforms, some of 
which have been brought about, while others are still 
to come. 

The People and the Land. — One of the evils of 
the time attacked by More was the way in which 
the small holders were being driven off the land. 

wool The demand for wool was very great, and landlords 

found that they could make more money by raising 
sheep than by planting grain, so they turned their 
fields into sheep pastures. But this meant that fewer 
laborers were needed, for a shepherd and his dog 
sufficed now where formerly a dozen men were 
employed. Thus work became very scarce and 

Fan in wages wages began to fall. At the same time many land- 

and rise in 

rents. lords, in their greed for wealth, raised the rents that 

they might get rid of their tenants and have more 
land for sheepwalks. Sometimes whole villages were 
cleared of their inhabitants in this way, and then 



Enclosures 



The Beginnings of the Reformation 195 

given over to decay. Moreover, on one pretext or 
another the common lands, where the villagers from 
time immemorial had pastured their cows and pigs 
and geese, were often seized and enclosed by some 
great landowner of the neighborhood. Thus another 
means of eking out a living was cut off. 

Mam efforts were made to put a stop to these 
practices. Laws were passed forbidding men to 
keep more than a limited number of sheep, the 
clergv preached against the greed of the rich, and 
in the reign of Henry's son Edward a " Prayer for 
Landlords" was composed by royal authority be- 
seeching the Lord to soften their hearts that they 
might be ''content with that that is sufficient, and 
not join house to house, nor couple land to land, to 
the impoverishment of others." But laws and 
prayers were alike in vain, and the country was over- 
run with unhappy people, who, without homes and 
without work, were forced to beg their living from 
door to door. 



Section 2. The Beginnings of the Reformation 

The Church and the Protestants. — At this time 
many felt that something ought to be done to im- 
prove the state of the Church. Europe swarmed 
with priests and monks, but many of them were 
ignorant and neglectful of their duties, living idle, 
useless lives. A German friar, named Martin Luther, Luther and 

the Protes- 

started a movement for reform. Luther and his tants. 



196 The New Order of State and Church 

followers, who were called Protestants, separated 
from the Church of Rome after a time, refusing to 
acknowledge the authority of the Pope. At first 
there were very few Protestants in England, and the 
king himself was so much opposed to Luther's teach- 
ings that he wrote a book attacking them. As a 
reward for this the Pope bestowed upon him the 
title of Defender of the Faith. 

The Divorce Question. — Soon after Henry came to 
the throne he married Catherine of Aragon, his 
brother's widow. He did this in part that he might 
not lose her dowry. Nevertheless, for several years 
the two lived happily together, and a number of 
children were born to them, but all died save one, 
the Princess Mary. Suddenly Henry discovered that 
he had done wrong to marry his brother's widow. 
The truth was he had fallen in love with one of the 
queen's maids of honor, a gay young girl named 
Anne Boieyn. Anne Boleyn. Henry now asked the pope to divorce 
him from Catherine on the ground that the marriage 
was unlawful. The Pope was in sore straits. He 
was loath to disoblige Henry, but on the other hand 

Henry VIII, m. 1. Catherine of Aragon, 1509 
I 

Mary 
m. 2. Anne Boleyn, 1533 

I 

Elizabeth 
m. 3. Jane Seymour, 1536 

I 

Edward \ I, 

m. 4. Anne of Cleves, 1540 
m. 5. Catherine Howard, 1540 
m. 6. Catherine Parr, 1543 



The Beginnings of the Reformation 197 

le was afraid of offending Charles V of Germany, 
Catherine's nephew and her stanch defender. At 
ength he agreed to send over an Italian cardinal, 



Anne Boleyn. 



vho with Wolsey should try the case in England. 

rhe cardinals held their court in the great Black- The trial at 

riars' Hall in London, and here Henry and Cath- 



198 



The New Order in State and Church 



Shakespeare 

King Hen ry 
the Eighth, 
Act II, Sc 4- 



Shakespeare. 

King Henry 
the Eighth, 
Act III. 
SC. 2. 



Thomas 
Cromwell. 



erine appeared before them. The poor outraged 
queen flung herself on her knees before her husband. 
" Sire," she cried, " I beseech you to pity me, a 
woman and a stranger, without an assured friend and 
without an indifferent counsellor." Henry paid no 
heed to her pleadings, and when the cardinals decided 
to refer the question back to Rome he was beside 
himself with rage, knowing that there was little 
chance that the Pope would do as he wished. 

The Fall of Wolsey. — The royal anger fell at once 
on Wolsey. His great services forgotten, he was 
deprived of his offices and wealth. He did not long 
survive the shock. On his deathbed he cried, "Had 
I but served my God as diligently as I have served 
the king, He would not have given me over in my 
gray hairs." Among the few who clung to Wolsey 
in his fallen fortunes was his secretary, Thomas 
Cromwell, a low-born but able adventurer. Crom- 
well's efforts in his master's behalf attracted the 
attention of the king, who was a keen reader of 
men, and within a short time he became Henry's 
secretary and right-hand man, wielding more power 
than ever Wolsey had done. 

The King breaks with Rome. — Henry was unwill- 
ing to accept his defeat. The more he was thwarted, 
the more determined he became to marry Anne 
Boleyn. Wolsey had truly said of him, " Sooner 
than miss any part of his will he will endanger one- 
half of his kingdom." If the pope would not do as 
he wished, he was ready to deny the authority of the 



The Beginnings of the Reformation 



199 



Pope. Acting on the advice of Thomas Cranmer, 
Archbishop of Canterbury, Henry decided to declare 
by his own authority as king that his marriage with 




Henry VIIL. 

Catherine was no marriage at all 



Accordingly this Catherine 

was done. Poor Catherine was sent away from Anne^ 
court, and Anne was installed in her place with 



:: ::r 



:i- ■ ■ ;:j: 



The Xeu* Order in State and Church 

much pomp and mag 7 keep the 
froc: _ . 

maki: _ d of the Church in 

, and, and declaring tft Pope had no 

The Destruction of the Mo: - — The Church 

nd no pari 
open to atta r wealth 

great, and the condi: - me of 

scandalous. Y .ad already dissolved a 

-lishme: g eir propertv to enc 

colk- ' Church. 

king and the tiers that 

hung about him needed lit: to follow the 

mini- 

And cor 
to look into the _:ous houses. Acting 

on t sport, H iuced Parliament to 

:_v i '.i:\ -.;;:_—_ ;• :"--: ?:v.A'.'.er n: r.As:er::> 
Three years later followed the :tion of the 

:er.-.i:r.ier 

On the whole the country lost little by the 

ution of the monastic establishn They 

had ceased to be a of learning, and the monks 

hardly more than great landowners spending 

but a small portion of their hrg in works 

: n. But Henry's 
carried out with unnec. and harshness. 

Monks and nuns were turned out of doors with only 
scanty prove tble libraries were scat- 



The Beginnings of 201 

tered abroad to be sold a- - the 

beautiful buildin_ Ft to fall in ruir 

monastic lands were confiscate*: 




. 



did little good with them, squandering the part 

upon his followers 

The English Bible —All - ~ad not 

changed his mind coi _ 

thro._ :h Rome he was often forced to 

make common : J the 

_ation of Cromwell, whose poli- 
them, he took the important step of directing : 



202 The New Order in State and Church 

translation of the Bible should be made. Thereupon 

he ordered that every parish church should possess 

The English a copy of this, " for every man that will to read 

jjibic ffivsn to 

toe people. and look therein." Thus for the first time the Bible 
was open to the people, and the result was that the 
Protestant doctrines spread rapidly, especially in 
London and the eastern counties, where frequent 
intercourse with Germany had prepared the way. 
Toward the end of his reign, Henry became alarmed 
at the spread of religious discussion, and in the hope 
of putting a stop to it he forbade the reading of the 
Bible by women and by all persons of low degree. 

The Reign of Terror. — While there were some who 
approved of what the king was doing, the mass of the 
people were aghast at his measures. The break with 
Rome passed almost unnoticed, but the wrongs of 
Catherine aroused general indignation, and there was 
much sympathy with the monks and nuns. But only 
here and there was one who dared object. Cromwell 
was active in repressing any murmur of rebellion, 
and his spies were all about. In the words of 
Erasmus, men felt "as if a scorpion lay sleeping 
under every stone." 

This was England's reign of terror. Cromwell's 
victims were numbered by scores, but at least it was 
the leaders and not the little men that he struck 
down. In the north the monks were more popular 
than in the south, and the dissolution of the small 
monasteries aroused much indignation. In 1536, a 
serious rebellion, known as the Pilgrimage of Grace, 



The Beginnings of the Reformation 203 

broke out in Lincolnshire and Yorkshire. The de- The Piignm 
mands of the insurgents included the restoration of ff 3 6° 
the monasteries and the dismissal of Cromwell 

Henry refused every request. To the Lincolnshire 
rebels he said, " How presumptuous are ye, the rude 
commons of one shire, and that one of the most brute 
and beastly of the whole realm and of least experi- 
ence, to take upon you contrary to God's law and 
man's law, to rule your Prince, whom ye are bound 
to obey. - ' The royal train of artillery made quick 
work with the disorderly levies of the insurgents. 
The suppression of the ris followed by the 

execution of all the leaders. The chief nobles of the 
northern shires died on the scaffold, and the abbots 
of the great monastic establishments were hung at 
Tyburn. In the west discontent centred around the 
aged Countess of Salisbury, niece of Edward IY, 
and granddaughter of the Kingmaker. Her gray 
hairs and royal blood could not save her, and she too 
suffered under the axe. 

Nor was the noblest of all Englishmen spared. Sir 
Thomas More refused to deny the authoritv of the 
Pope. For a moment Henry and Cromwell hesi- 
tated to touch the best loved man of the time, but 
for a moment only. More was firm, and he. too. was Execution of 
sent to the block. In the last hour his old cheerful Morl h ° maS 
humor did not forsake him. Weak from confine- 
ment, he tottered as he mounted the scaffold. " I 
pray you, I pray you,'" he said to the officer at his 
side, " see me safe up, and for my coming down let 



204 The New Order in State and Church 



Birth of 
Princess 
Elizabeth. 



Birth of 

Prince 

Edward. 



me shift for myself." When the emperor of Ger- 
many was told of More's death, he exclaimed, " If 
I had been master of such a servant, I would rather 
have lost the best city of my dominions, than have 
lost such a worthy counsellor." 

The Royal Bluebeard. — Poor, frivolous Anno 
Boleyn did not long enjoy her good fortune. A 
little daughter was born to her, afterwards Queen 
Elizabeth, but already the affection of the fickle king 
was cooling. It was not long before Henry found 
a pretext for having Anne arrested and brought to 
trial for disloyalty. It shows the callousness of the 
time that among the queen's judges were her uncle 
and her father. The poor woman's condemnation 
was a foregone conclusion, for she had a rival. The 
day following Anne's death on the scaffold Henry 
married one of her maids of honor, Lady Jane 
Seymour. 

The king's new happiness was short-lived. Within 
fifteen months the young queen died after giving 
birth to a son, Prince Edward. For two years 
Henry remained unmarried. He sought the hand 
of the Duchess of Milan, who replied that if she had 
had two heads she might have accepted his offer, but 
having only one, she must decline it. Finally, to 
strengthen the ties with Protestant Germany, Crom- 
well arranged an alliance between his master and 
Anne of Cleves, a German princess. The scheme 
turned out badly, for Henry was disgusted with his 
ugly bride. Anne was induced to consent to a 



The Beginnings of the Reformation 205 

divorce, and withdrew from court well satisfied with 
the terms that she had made. Almost immediately 
Henry married Catherine Howard, niece of the Duke 
of Norfolk, and cousin to poor Anne Boleyn, whose 
mother was a Howard. Within two years the beauti- 
ful but flighty young queen was sent to the block, and 
the king was once more a widower. A little later 
Henry married for the sixth and last time. The wife 
of his old age was Catherine Parr, the widow of one 
of the royal ministers. Through tact and good for- 
tune she succeeded in remaining in the king's good 
graces until his death. 

The Fall of the Great Minister. — Cromwell had 
done his work ruthlessly and thoroughly. He had 
made England outwardly Protestant, he had struck 
down the independence of the Church, he had made 
the king absolute ; Parliament was merely a useful 
tool in his hands. But the doing of these things had 
brought the minister many enemies. The nobles 
hated him as an upstart ; those who loved the old 
Church, and they were the majority, desired his over- cromweirs 
throw. Nevertheless no one dared to attack him so 
long as he had the king's favor. 

But Cromwell's turn had now come. He had done 
his work so well that he was not needed, and Henry 
never hesitated to throw over a friend or servant 
when no longer of use. Cromwell's mistake in giv- 
ing the king an ugly wife sealed his doom. He was 
arrested at the very council table, and his rival for 
power, the Duke of Norfolk, tore the ensign of the 



unpopularity. 



2o6 The New Order in State and Church 



Persecution 
of Protes- 
tants and 
Catholics. 



garter from his breast. For a moment the great 
minister met the taunting cries of the nobles with 
defiance, " This, then, is my guerdon for the services 
I have done ! On your consciences, I ask you, am 
I a traitor?" Then, knowing the hopelessness of 
resistance, he resigned himself to his fate, asking 
only of his enemies that they make quick work, and 
not leave him to languish in prison. Within a month 
he had followed his many victims to the block. 

The End of Henry's Reign. — After Cromwell's 
fall the king and the nation showed more plainly 
their dislike to change in religion. Already an act 
called the Six Articles had been passed, bidding all 
to abide by the doctrines of the ancient Church. 
Now, under the Whip of Six Strings, as this act was 
popularly called, there was some persecution of the 
Protestants. At the same time Henry had no mind 
to return to Rome, and those of his subjects who re- 
fused to deny the authority of the Pope had to surfer 
for their steadfastness. In 1547, the king died. All 
likeness to the handsorne young fellow who ascended 
the throne thirty years before had disappeared. He 
had grown coarse and unwieldy, his good looks and 
charm of manner were gone, and his temper had 
become morose and suspicious. Only his strong will 
remained unchanged. England breathed a sigh of 
relief when the tyrant was gone. 



The Protestant Resolution 207 

Section 3. The Protestant Revolution 

Edward, the Boy King 'i547-i553>- — Henry's suc- 
r was his only son, Jane Seymour's child, 
tie Edward was a delicate boy of nine years when he 
came to the throne. His education had been care- 
fully attended to, and he was earnest and thoughtful 
beyond his age, with strong Protestant opinions im- 
bibed from his tutors. During his brief reign he led 
a sad, lonely life amid the state and ceremony with 
which he was surrounded. He was always the king, 
never the boy. Even his two elder sisters, Mary and 
Elizabeth, never approached him save on bended 
knee. The diary kept by the little king has been 1 1 
preserved, and in it we may read the record of his 
daily life, of council meetings over which he pre- 
sided, of the reception of grave ambassadors from 
France or Spain, of his efforts to settle disp 
among the nobles. In the government of the coun- 
try Edward had little share, the real ruler being at 
first his uncle, the Duke of Somerset, known as the The Dute of 
Protector, and afterwards the Earl of Warwick. 

Revolution in the Church. — Somerset was well 
meaning, but not ve _-. His opinions were 

strongly Protestant and, with the support of Cran- 
mer and the young king, he at once went to work to 
revolutionize the worship of the country. Many 
things endeared to the people by long use were done 
away. Mass was abolished and the English prayer- The 1 
book replaced the old Latin service. The imag 




Edward VI. 



The Protestant Revolution 



209 



in the churches were demolished, and the frescoes on 
the walls covered with whitewash. Often the making 
of these changes was intrusted to rude, irreverent 
men, who did their work in a way very shocking to 
the people. Pictures and ornaments torn from the 




House in London. 

Time of Edward VI. 



churches were burned with riotous proceedings, and 
altar-cloths and the sacred vestments of the clergy 
were scattered abroad to decorate the houses of the 
gentry, or cut up into cloaks and jackets. Henry's 
example in seizing ecclesiastical property was fol- 



210 The New Order in State and Church 



lowed by Somerset. Many churches were torn down 
and their lands confiscated. To make room for a 
great palace he was building in London the duke 




Westminster 
Lambeth Palace 



Whitehall 



St. Mary's 
Hospital 



Gray's Inn 
The Temple 



London in 1543. 
From Westminster to Grey Friars. 



had a church and chapel destroyed, and the church- 
yard dug up. 

Somersets Fall. — London and the seaport towns, 
where Protestantism was strong, approved of Somer- 



The Protestant Revolution 



211 



set's doings, but elsewhere there was great discon- 
tent. At this time there was much suffering among 
the country people, due to the lack of work and 



^-j 



' 



! 




St. Paul's Cathedral 
li^h Street, Southwark 



Southwark 



London in 1543. 
From the Palace of Bridewell to London Bridge. 

the high prices of food. The Protector was only in- 
directly responsible for this state of things, but 
nevertheless the blame was laid upon him. For the 
stupid war with Scotland, another cause for dissatis- Scotland!* 1111 



212 



TJw New Order in State and CJiurcJi 



faction, Somerset was responsible. The Scottish 
sovereign was a little girl, the famous Mary Stuart. 
The duke, adopting the plan of Henry VIII, strove 




Billingsgate lower Hill 

London in 1543. 
From London Bridge to the Tower of London. 



to arrange a marriage between her and his young 
master. The advantages to both countries would 
have been great, but Somerset spoiled everything 
when he tried to hurry up negotiations by sending an 



The Protestant Revolution 



213 



army across the Border. A Scotch noble expressed 
the general feeling when he said he " misliked not the 

match, but hated the manner of wooing." Scotland 



- • 1 




traitor's Gate 



St. Catherine's 

London in 1543. 
From the Tower to Greenwich. 



Palace nf Placentia 

Monastery of Bermondsey 



was thrown into the arms of France, and the little 
queen was hurried over to Paris, and betrothed to the 
French king's son. 

Somerset's mistakes were taken advantage of by 



214 The New Order in State and Church 



Execution of 

Somerset, 

1552. 



Plundering 
the Church. 



Northumber- 
land's plot. 



some of the nobles who were jealous of his power. 
He was seized, imprisoned, and put to death on the 
usual charge of treason. The mourning crowds 
around the scaffold testified to his popularity with 
the Londoners. The little king, however, showed 
no emotion at his uncle's death, but coolly noted in 
his diary, " the Duke of Somerset had his head cut 
off upon Tower Hill between eight and nine o'clock 
in the morning." 

The Rule of Warwick. — Instead of improving, 
matters went from -bad to worse after Somerset's 
fall. His place was taken by the Earl of Warwick, 
who was no wiser and far less honest than the duke. 
Warwick was a self-seeking, unscrupulous man, but 
to secure the favor of the king he affected great 
zeal for the new doctrines. Reform ran riot. The 
stone altars in the churches were demolished, to be 
replaced by wooden tables stationed in the middle of 
the church. A new creed was drawn up, which all 
clergymen and schoolmasters were forced to accept. 
The plundering of the Church was completed by the 
seizure of half the lands of each bishopric. 

Warwick, or, as he had now become, the Duke of 
Northumberland, saw with alarm the waning health 
of the young king. The next in succession was 
Princess Mary, who was no friend to his rule, and 
he knew that if she came to the throne his power 
was gone. To save himself, Northumberland devised 
a plan for changing the succession by which Mary 
and Elizabeth were to be passed over, and the crown 



The Protestant Revolution 215 

was to be given to little Lady Jane Grey, grand- 
daughter of Henry VIII's younger sister, Mary, and 
wife of Northumberland's son. 

To secure Edward's support, the duke played 
upon his strong Protestant prejudices. Mary was a 
devoted adherent of the ancient Church, and her 
accession would mean a Catholic restoration. The 
dying boy listened eagerly to Northumberland's 
schemes, and with his own hand drew up his will, 
giving the crown to Jane and her heirs. Such a dis- 
regard of hereditary right was unheard of, and the 
royal councillors protested hotly, but the little king 
had all the Tudor obstinacy, and weak and dying as 
he was, he did not rest until he had induced the 
great men of the realm to sign the deed. A little 
later he died, praying that his people might be saved Death of 

r iiii c ^1 • Edward. 

from a return to the old order ot things. 

The Failure of Northumberland's Plot. — For a few 
days Edward's death was kept secret while the duke 
carried out his plans. His innocent tool, little Lady 
Jane, cared only for her books and her husband, and 
knew nothing of what was on foot. She fainted 
away when the lords of the council appeared before 
her to do homage. Upon her recovery she was 
taken in state to the Tower and proclaimed queen. 
But the lack of enthusiasm was ominous ; even Prot- 
estant London was cold. As the duke rode through 
the streets he noted with despair the bearing of the 
spectators. " The people crowd to look upon us," 
he said, "but not one calls ' God speed ye ! ' " The 



216 The New Order in State and Church 



Mary Tudor 
made queen. 



Ainsworth, 
Tower of 
London. 



truth was Northumberland was universally hated, 
while no one knew much about the Lady Jane, and 
even Protestants were not prepared for so outrageous 
a disregard of Mary's rights. The nation rallied 
around Catherine's daughter, and with scarcely an 
effort she founcj herself on the throne, her foes at 
her mercy. Northumberland was put to death, and 
the little queen of thirteen days was confined in the 
Tower. 



Section 4. The Catholic Reaction 



Tennyson, 

Queen Mary. 



Mary's aims. 



Mary Tudor ( 1553- 1558) . — England's new ruler was 
a woman of thirty-eight, well educated, like all the 
children of Henry VIII, and with a full share of 
the Tudor obstinacy, but lacking wholly that power 
to understand the people so marked in her father 
and in her sister Elizabeth. Since the divorce she 
had lived in retirement and neglect, brooding over 
her own and her mother's wrongs. A stanch 
Catholic, persecution had merely strengthened her 
zeal for her faith, and she was now bent on bringing 
England back to the Pope. At first, however, she 
went slowly. Mass was restored, and the use of 
the English service book prohibited. Indeed in 
many places these changes were made without the 
queen's orders, for the majority of the people had 
little love for the new order in the Church. 

Mary had another matter at heart. She naturally 
felt herself much alone in England where her 



The Catholic Reaction 217 

mother had been so sorely persecuted, and when 
her cousin Charles of Germany suggested that she 
should marry his son and heir, Philip, she gladly 




Mary Tudor. 



agreed. The English people did not like the plan, 
however. Philip would in time be king of Spain, a 
very powerful state, and it was feared that Eng- 



218 The New Order in State and Church 



1554- 



defeat of 
Wyatt. 



Execution of 
Lady Jane 
Grey. 



land's independence might be endangered through 
the connection. 

Wyatt's Rebellion. — Dissatisfaction with the pro- 
posed Spanish match was reenforced in the south by 
the discontent of a strong Protestant element, and a 
dangerous rebellion was the result. Chief among the 
leaders were the Duke of Suffolk, the father of Lady 
Jane, and Sir Thomas Wyatt, a Kentish knight. The 
aim of the rebels was to depose Mary and to put 
Elizabeth in her place. Wyatt with ten thousand 
men marched upon London. But Mary displayed 
all the energy and fearlessness of her house and 
rallied the citizens to her defence. The bulk of 
Wyatt's force was cut off, and although he succeed- 
ing in reaching Temple Bar with a handful of fol- 
lowers, it was only to fall exhausted before the closed 
gate. " I have kept touch," he cried as he was over- 
powered and led away to the Tower. 

Mary was pitiless in her vengeance. Not only 
were Suffolk and Wyatt put to death, but the little 
Lady Jane was also sent to the block, although there 
was nothing to connect her with the plot. Princess 
Elizabeth was committed to the Tower. Convinced 
that her time had come, she seated herself on a wet 
stone at the entrance, and for a while declined to 
enter. But she had cautiously refused to connect 
herself with Suffolk's plan, and her popularity made 
it unwise to attack her without strong proof. So she 
escaped the block. 

Mary's Days of Happiness. — After this, opposition 



The Catholic Reaction 219 

to Mary's plans ceased, Philip came to England, 

although rather unwillingly, for he had little love 

for his elderly bride, and the royal wedding was Marriage of 

celebrated with much pomp. The queen succeeded p£hp? nd 

also in inducing Parliament to pass laws declaring 

that the pope was once more to be obeyed in Eng- supremacy 

l of the Pope 

land, and that all who refused to believe as he said recognized, 
were to be burnt alive. Mary was anxious to set up 
the monasteries again, but to this Parliament agreed 
only on condition that the abbey lands were not to 
be demanded back from their present owners. 

There followed now a few months of happiness for 
Mary, all that she was to know in her sad life. Eng- 
land was reconciled to Rome, and she was married to 
a husband whom she tenderly loved. She did not yet 
realize that Philip had consented to the marriage 
simply from policy. Nor could she foresee that 
her measures would result in making England far 
more Protestant than before. 

The Protestant Martyrs. — Dark days followed for 
England. Against the advice of many of the Roman 
Catholic leaders, Mary was determined on forcing 
England back to the ancient faith, and by the use 
of the faggot and stake, if nothing else would do 
the work. The history of the last three years of 
the reign is a catalogue of horrors. At the bidding 
of the half-insane queen many who would not recant 
were put to death. In all, about three hundred suf- 
fered during this sad time. 

Most famous of those put to death were Ridley, 



220 The New Order in State and Church 



Burning of 
Ridley and 
Latimer. 



Burning of 

Cranmer, 

1556. 



Bishop of London, Latimer, the favorite preacher 
of Edward VI, and Cranmer, Archbishop of Canter- 
bury. Ridley and Latimer were burnt together 
under the walls of Oxford. Ridley dressed himself 
for his marriage, as he called the burning, in a hand- 
some black velvet gown trimmed with fur. At the 
stake he distributed keepsakes among his friends, 
new coins, nutmegs, and pieces of ginger. Beside 
him stood Latimer dressed in his shroud. As the 
faggots were lighted, the great preacher called out to 
his companion, " Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, 
and play the man. We shall this day light such a 
candle by God's grace in England, as I trust shall 
never be put out." 

A little later Cranmer suffered on the same spot. 
His learning was great, but he was not a brave man, 
and in the hope of saving himself from the fate of 
Ridley and Latimer, whose burning he had been 
forced to witness, he had signed a recantation of his 
Protestant opinions. But this availed him nothing. 
The queen would not forgive the man who had aided 
Henry in putting away her mother and who had led 
so many astray. In the end Cranmer met death 
nobly, holding his right hand in the flames that it 
might first be burned because with it he had signed 
that which was untrue. Although Mary did not 
know it, she was making more Protestants than ever 
Cranmer had done. Little used to scenes of 
this kind, England sickened at the work of the 
queen and her bishops, and the people began to fall 



Calais, 1558 



The Catholic Reaction 221 

away from the cause in behalf of which such horrible 
things w r ere done. 

The Death of Queen Mary. — After a reign of only 
five years Mary died, a broken-hearted woman. To 
please Philip she had gone to war with France, and loss of 
as a result Calais was lost, England's last possession 
on the Continent. She was childless, and she knew 
that after her would reign her sister Elizabeth, a 
Protestant, and the daughter of Anne Boleyn, her 
mother's supplanter. Above all, she was forced to 
see that in spite of her efforts, indeed rather because 
of them, her subjects were now more alienated from 
Rome than ever before. 

Books for Study 

Creighton, Cardinal Wolsey. 
Creighton, Tudor s and the Reformation. 

Suggestive Questions 

Section 1. — What was Henry VIPs claim to the throne? 
With what king would you compare Henry VII 1? Why was 
there so much poverty at this time? 

Section 2. — Why did Henry VIII break with Rome? De- 
scribe Cromwell's policy. Why did Henry persecute both Protes- 
tants and Catholics? 

Section 3. — Describe the changes in the Church under Ed- 
ward II. What was Northumberland's plot, and why did it fail ? 

Section 4. — Why did England object to Mary's marrying 
Philip ? What kind of a woman was Mary ? 

Special Topics 

The execution of More : Roper, Life of Sir Thomas More. 
Lady Jane Grey : Froude, History of England, VI, chs. XXX, 
XXXI. 



CHAPTER X 

THE REIGN OF A GREAT QUEEN 

She shall be loved and fear'd : her own shall bless her; 

Her foes shake like a field of beaten corn, 

And hang their heads with sorrow : good grows with her. 

In her days every man shall eat in safety, 

Under his own vine, what he plants ; and sing 

The merry songs of peace to all his neighbours : 

God shall be truly known ; and those about her 

From her shall read the perfect ways of honour, 

And by those claim their greatness, not by blood. 

— Shakespeare, King Henry the Eighth, Act V., Sc. 4. 

Section i. A New Policy 

Good Queen Bess (1558-1603). — Elizabeth was sit- 
ting under a tree in Hatfield Park when she was 
informed of her sister's death. " It is the Lord's 
doing," she exclaimed, "and marvellous in our eyes." 
To the young princess the news meant release from 
the hourly peril of imprisonment and death as a heretic 
or a traitor. Mary had surrounded her with spies 
watching for signs of treachery, and many had been 
the attempts to involve her in some plot against the 
queen. But Elizabeth had borne herself with such 
prudence that nothing could be brought up against 
her. Even now she refused to believe that she was 



A New Polity 223 

really queen until one whom she trusted brought to 
her a ring which Mary wore always on her finger. 




Elizabeth. 



The nation hailed its new ruler with joy. Even 
the Roman Catholics were glad to turn away from 



77/ e Reign of a Gnat c_ 



Character of 
Elizabeth. 



England 
without an 
ally. 



the horror and gloom of Mary's last years to wel- 
come the gay, handsome young woman who now 
ascended the throne. In Elizabeth Tudor the traits 
of father and mother were combined. Underneath 
the vanity and love of pleasure which she inherited 
from Anne were Henry's keen intellect and strong 
will. But unlike Henry, who was often ruled by 
his passions. Elizabeth showed all the caution and 
self-control so marked in her grandfather. Bold and 
energetic in time of danger, she nevertheless hated 
to make up her mind or to commit herself to a 
decided policy. In her dealings with others she was 
wholly unscrupulous, never hesitating to tell a lie 
or throw over a friend if by so doing her ends would 
be served. But with all her shortcomings Elizabeth 
won and held the love and confidence of her subjects 
as few rulers have done. 

Foreign Relations. — Elizabeth had need of all her 
wisdom and prudence, for her way was beset with 
difficulties. Roman Catholic Europe, led by the 
pope, declared that Anne Boleyn's daughter had no 
right to the English crown. Nowhere had she a safe 
and sure ally. It is true that at first Philip showed 
himself friendly, and even proposed marriage with 
the idea of keeping his hold on England. But alli- 
ance with Spain meant the loss of independence, 
and the high-spirited young queen was determined 
that foreigners should no longer meddle in English 
affairs. So. greatly to Philip's surprise, she cour- 
teously refused his offer, preferring to stand alone. 



A New Policy 225 

To many Elizabeth's course seemed rash, for she 
was without an army or a navy, and the treasury was 
empty. Opposed to her were the king of France 
and the king of Spain, powerful sovereigns with 
large armies at their disposal. Either could have 
conquered England with little difficulty. Fortunately England's 
they were rivals, and the keynote to Elizabeth's 
policy was her belief that if one attacked her the 
other would come to her defence. By playing upon 
this jealousy between France and Spain she hoped 
to keep out of war, at least until England was 
stronger and more united. 

England made Protestant. -The queen's most diffi- 
cult problem was the settling of the Church. She 
put a stop at once to the burnings for heresy, but it 
was not easy to know what to do next. Probably 
half the people would have been content to go on 
worshipping after the manner of their fathers. On 
the other hand, there were many more real Protes- 
tants in the country than when Mary came to the 
throne, and they were very active and zealous for 
their faith. 

Unlike Edward and Mary, Elizabeth had no very 
strong religious opinions. She did not sympathize 
with the feeling of either party, and only wished that 
her subjects would settle down peacefully and stop 
talking about religious matters. But she knew that 
the Protestants were loyal to her, while many of the 
Catholics doubted her right to the throne, so she 
deliberately decided to support Protestantism. The 



226 



The Reign of a Great Queen 



Elizabeth's 
treatment of 
the Roman 
Catholics. 



Mary Stuart 
claims the 
English 
crown. 



Pope was no longer to be obeyed in England. Mass 
was prohibited, and the English prayer-book re- 
placed in the churches. No other kind of service 
was to be allowed, and those who did not go to 
church were fined. A good many of the forms and 
ceremonies of the old worship were, however, re- 
tained in the hope of winning over the Roman Catho- 
lics, and for the time no one was put to death for his 
opinions. 

Section 2. The Rival Queens 

Mary Stuart. — Elizabeth was anxious to get mat- 
ters in order in England, for danger threatened her 
from across the B.order. The little queen of Scots 
whom Edward was to have married was now a 
woman grown. She had been brought up at the 
French court, the bride of the dauphin of France, 
but soon after Elizabeth came to the throne her hus- 
band died. There was no longer a place for her in 
France, so she returned to her northern kingdom, 
which she had not seen since childhood. 

Mary, as a good Catholic, maintained that Elizabeth 
had no right to rule over England, and by reason of 
her descent from Henry VII I's elder sister Margaret 
she claimed the throne herself, even going so far as 
to assume the title of Queen of England. Elizabeth 
watched these proceedings with alarm, for she was 
afraid that if Mary and the Scotch people came to a 
good understanding, they might unite to drive her 
from the throne. 



The Rival Queens 227 

Queen Mary and the Scotch. — Mary Stuart left 
her adopted country very reluctantly, and the first 
night at sea she slept on deck that she might catch the 
last glimpses of the French coast. The new home 
seemed very forbidding, climate and language were 
harsh, and the rude, unrefined manners of the nobles 
contrasted unpleasantly with the courtly ways of the 
French among whom Mary had grown up. Worst 
of all to the young queen was the fact that the Scots 
under the leadership of the great preacher, John 
Knox, had embraced with ardor the Protestant 
beliefs. 

It was a hard prospect for the gay, beautiful girl Mary's tact- 
of eighteen, but Mary was as clever as she was beau- 
tiful, and she deliberately set herself to win the devo- 
tion of her subjects as a first step toward carrying Scott, The 

Monastery. 

out her designs against Elizabeth. Through her tact 

and charm she was successful. With much shrewd- whyte- 

Melville, The 

ness she forebore to do anything that would shock Queen'* 

. _ .. , . . . Maries. 

the Protestant prejudices of the people, contenting 
herself with holding mass in her private chapel. Her 
love of outdoor sports commended her to the rough 
Scotch nobles, who were delighted to find that their 
new queen could ride and hunt with the best of them. 
From across the Border Elizabeth watched Mary's 
success with jealous eyes, fearing her cunning and 
envying her youth and beauty. 

Mary Stuart's Overthrow. — A few years after her Mary's 

■* marriage 

return to Scotland Mary made up her mind to marry with 
her cousin, Henry Darnley. The marriage proved 1565. 



228 



The Reign of a Great Queen 



The murder 
of Rizzio. 



The murder 
of Darnley. 



Mary marries 
Bothwell. 

1567. 



unhappy. Darnley was far inferior in mind to his 
wife but he was conceited and headstrong, and in- 
sisted on having a share in the government. When 
Mary refused to grant this, he conceived the idea that 
an Italian musician named Rizzio, to whom Mary 
showed some favor, was influencing her against him. 
One evening as the queen was supping in her 
private apartments with her ladies and Rizzio, Darn- 
ley forced his way into the room with a few followers 
and attacked the Italian. Mary threw herself in 
front of her friend, who clung to her gown, but in 
spite of her efforts he was dragged out to the 
staircase and stabbed to death. 

The queen never forgave the outrage, but for a 
time there seemed to be a reconciliation between her 
and her husband. A few months later Darnley fell 
ill of small-pox, and by the queen's orders he was 
taken to Kirk o'Fields, a lonely house outside the 
walls of Edinburgh. One night there was a terrible 
explosion at this place, and search revealed Darnley 
dead in the garden. Mary was openly accused of 
having brought this about, but she paid no heed to 
the murmurs of her subjects for she had fallen in 
love with the Earl of Bothwell, a rough border lord 
who was probably Darnley's murderer. Within a 
few weeks she suffered Bothwell to carry her off to 
the castle of Dunbar, and there to marry her. 

This marriasre was Mary's ruin. All were now 
convinced of her concern in Darnley's murder, and 
the nobles took up arms to drive her from the throne 



The Rival Queens 229 

that she had so disgraced. A battle was fought 
near Edinburgh in which Mary's supporters were 
completely defeated. Bothwell fled to Dunbar and 
thence to Orkney, and finally ended his life in a 
Danish prison. His wife of one month was brought 
back to Edinburgh a prisoner. As she rode through 
the streets clad in a short red petticoat, and her face 
swollen with weeping, a banner was displayed before 
her showing the dead Darnley and the legend, 
r Judge and avenge my cause, O Lord ! " After this 
Mary was forced to abdicate, and in her place her Deposition of 

1 • j 1 « Mary, 1567= 

young son was proclaimed king. 

For safe-keeping the fallen queen was confined in 
Lochleven, a castle standing on an island in the lake 
of that name. Here she remained in close captivity 
for several months, but finally through the daring of 
a young page she escaped, and after a wild ride of 
eighty miles, succeeded in reaching the stronghold 
of one of her supporters. A few of her subjects 
rallied to her standard, but defeat followed, and again 
the hapless woman was forced to ride for her life, 
and this time she sought safety across the English 
Border, leaving Scotland never to return. 

Mary in England. — Elizabeth hardly knew what 
to do with her fallen rival. Mary begged for aid to 
restore her to the throne of Scotland, but Elizabeth 
was unwilling to force upon the Scotch a ruler whom 
they had rejected. Xor could she make up her scott, The 
mind to allow Mary to depart to France, there to stir AU *' 
up trouble for England. Finally she decided to keep 



30 



The Reign of a Great Queen 



the fugitive in gentle confinement. No one wished 
to be responsible for so dangerous a guest, but 
Elizabeth's commands were law, and Mary spent the 




Mary Stuart. 



Mary a 
prisoner. 



next few years a prisoner in one country house or 
another in north England. 

In this part of the country the adherents of the 
ancient faith were numerous, and among them were 
the earls of Northumberland and of Westmoreland, 



When England and Spain were Rivals 231 

leaders of the northern nobility. Stirred by religious The rising of 
zeal and devotion to Mary Stuart, they devised a eari^is^" 1 
scheme to set the Scotch queen in Elizabeth's place, 
and to restore the ancient Church. A rising fol- 
lowed, and six thousand of the country people headed 
by the earls marched into Durham. The English 
Bible and prayer-book were solemnly burned, and 
once more mass was celebrated in the old cathedral. 
But it was for the last time. Elizabeth's supporters 
rallied quickly, the earls were defeated, and fled 
across the Border, leaving their hapless followers to 
the royal vengeance. 



Section 3. When England and Spain were 
Rivals 

Philip the Second. — Mary was no longer the 
danger that she had been, but a greater foe' re- 
mained. It was plain that sooner or later Elizabeth 
would be forced to measure swords with Philip of 
Spain, her brother-in-law and whilom suitor. The 
Spanish king was the mightiest sovereign of Europe 
at this time. From his father he had inherited the The Spanish 
fairest and richest portions of the Old World and of 
the New, and by the conquest of Portugal in 1580 
he almost doubled his resources. In his pay were 
the finest generals and soldiers of the age, and 
throughout the length and breadth of his vast domin- 
ions his will was law. He was bigoted and ambi- 
tious, and his mind was filled with schemes for 



232 



The Reign of a Great Queen 



Revolt of the 
Netherlands, 
T568. 



Elizabeth 
refuses to 
ally herself 
with the 
Protestants 
on the Con- 
tinent. 



Yonge, The 
Chaplet of 
Pearls. 



crushing out Protestantism and for extending the 
bounds of his empire. In his gloomy palace in 
Madrid he sat day after day, silent and laborious, 
unmoved by success or disaster, pulling the threads 
which guided the course of Europe. 

England as the leading Protestant power stood in 
the way of Philip's desire to win Europe back to 
Rome. Fear of forcing Elizabeth into an alliance 
with France kept him at first from open hostility, 
and soon he had his hands full with a revolt in the 
Netherlands. These were among his most valuable 
possessions, but Protestantism had made great head- 
way there, and when Philip strove to stamp out the 
new doctrines, the sturdy Dutch rose in rebellion. 
In William of Orange, called the Silent, they had a 
wise and determined leader, and they fought with 
such heroic resolution that even Alva, Philip's able 
though cruel general, failed to subdue them. 

Preparing for the Fray. — During this time Eliza- 
beth watched with selfish calculation events on the 
Continent. Bent on keeping out of war, she refused 
the entreaties of the Dutch for an alliance ; even 
their offer of the crown was coldly put aside. On 
the other hand, she allowed them to take refuge in 
her ports, and she made no effort to check the hun- 
dreds of volunteers who went from England to fight 
in their armies. Likewise she refused to take up the 
cause of the Huguenots, the French Protestants, in 
their struggles with their Catholic rulers. Several 
times she sent them aid, but only enough to keep 




ENGRAVED Br 80RMAY I 



When England and Spain were Rivals 233 

them from being stamped out, and she continued on 
friendly terms with the French court. 

The truth was, that although Elizabeth knew the Reason for 

_, . . ... . Elizabeth's 

Protestants were her only sure allies, yet she was policy. 
unwilling to throw in her lot with them, fearing that 
it might lead to war with France or Spain, or make 
desperate her own Catholic subjects. Her one desire 
was to avoid taking sides until England was stroi - 
The same motive kept her from marrying. Parlia- 
ment urged repeatedly that she choose a husband, 
and she played with various proposals in a rather 
undignified manner, but nothing came of them. 
Perhaps, too, her affection for the Earl of Leicester, Scott, 
son of the Duke of Northumberland of Edward VTs 
reign, had something to do with her determination to 
remain a virgin queen. 

Under this cautious although rather selfish policy 
England prospered. For twenty years the country 
enjoyed peace and good government, while every- 
where else there were disorders and war. Year by 
year Elizabeth's throne grew stronger. The English 
much admired their shrewd, high-spirited queen whose 
temper was so like their own, and she was very popular 
even with the more advanced of the Protestants, the 
Puritans, as they were called, who wished to sweep The Puritans 
from the Church all that savored of Rome, and to 
place England at the head of a great Protestant 
alliance. 

The Sea-Dogs. — These were the years when English- 
men, departing from their old stay-at-home ways, forced 



234 



The Reign of a Great Queen 



Kingsley, 
Westward 

Ho! 



Sir John 
Hawkins. 



.Sir Francis 
Drake. 



Corbett, For 
God and 
Gold. 



an entrance into every sea. Some explored the coasts 
of Russia, others penetrated into the far Mediterranean, 
but mostly they turned westward, drawn by reports 
of the vast wealth of America. Now the Spanish 
asserted an exclusive right to the New World, and 
treated all intruders in the western seas as pirates. 
But the race of bold, hardy mariners that had sprung 
up in England was ready to risk all in pursuit of gold 
and adventure. Moreover, they were eager for a 
brush with the Spaniards, whom they regarded as 
foes of both England and the Protestant Church. In 
their fierce zeal they thought they were doing God's 
work as well as filling their own pockets when they 
plundered the treasure ships of Spain. 

One of the earliest of these sea-dogs was John 
Hawkins of Devonshire. A daring sailor, he was 
often in collision with the Spanish, but chiefly he 
is known as the first Englishman to take part in 
the African slave-trade. To her credit, be it said, 
Elizabeth rebuked him for this. Another name is 
that of Martin Frobisher, a Yorkshire mariner, who 
spent his life in a vain search for a northwest pas- 
sage to India. Greatest, however, of all the Eliza- 
bethan seamen was Francis Drake, a Devon man 
like most of the others. He had been brought up to 
the sea, and in 1577, carrying out a long-cherished 
plan, he steered his ship, the Pelican, boldly round 
Cape Horn into the forbidden Pacific. Ranging up 
the coast of South America, he plundered the Span- 
ish settlements and captured a huge galleon return- 



When England and Spain were Rivals 235 

lug to Spain laden with treasure. After an adven- 
turous voyage of three years he returned home by 
way of the Cape of Good Hope, being the first to 
carry the English flag round the world. 

This was nothing less than war, but Elizabeth 
loved gold and daring, and when Philip demanded Elizabeth 
redress for the depredations of Drake and the other Jea- P dogs. the 
freebooters, the queen answered by bestowing honors 
and titles upon the men who were fighting England's 
battles at no cost to herself. And when the Spanish 
' ambassador threatened that " matters would come to 
cannon," she replied, so he wrote to his master, 
"quietly, in her most natural voice as if she were 
telling a common story, that if I used threats of that 
kind she would fling me into a dungeon." Philip 
was not yet ready for war, so for a time he swal- 
lowed his wrath. 

Plotting. — Although Philip was anxious to avoid 
open strife, he did not mind striking at Elizabeth 
secretly, and the discontent of the English Catholics 
gave him an opening. After the failure of the rebel- 
lion of the northern earls there was no general rising 
of the Catholics in England, but a few of the more 
desperate fell to plotting. Through the agency of 
Ridolfi, a Florentine banker, a plan was devised to TheRidoifi 
dethrone Elizabeth by the aid of the Spanish, and plot ' I5?I 
put Mary in her place. The plot was discovered, and 
the summary vengeance of the queen's ministers put 
an end to such plans for a time. 

Years passed, the Catholics were becoming recon- 



236 



The Reign of a Great Qiiecn 



Throck- 
morton's 
plot, 1583. 



Mary in 
prison. 



ciled to Elizabeth's rule, for there was little active 
persecution, and they shared in the benefits of her 
strong, orderly government. But on the Continent 
religious strife was growing fiercer, Philip plotted 
but did not act, and the more zealous of the Catholic 
party were becoming impatient. About 1580 mem- 
bers of the order of Jesuits began to make their way 
into England from France. This was the beginning 
of a far-reaching plan to conquer the country for 
Rome. The government was quick to take alarm, 
and it went pitilessly to work to crush out the move- 
ment. It is estimated that during the next twenty 
years two hundred priests were put to death, while 
many more wasted away in prison. 

Persecution led to renewed plotting. A scheme 
was formed for a grand rising supported by Philip in 
favor of the Queen of Scots. As a part of the plan, a 
young Catholic named Throckmorton with a few 
companions undertook to murder Elizabeth, but spies 
discovered in time what was on foot, and the great 
undertaking came to naught. But the reality of 
Elizabeth's danger was shown when a few months 
later the Prince of Orange was assassinated by a 
fanatic bought with Spanish gold. 

The Execution of Mary Stuart (1587). — During 
these stirring years Mary Stuart was wearing out her 
life in prison. She spent much of her time over em- 
broidery, occasionally sending Elizabeth specimens of 
her handiwork, and now and then she was allowed her 
favorite recreation of hunting. But chiefly she was 



When England and Spain were Rivals 237 

occupied in spinning plots with her supporters to 
bring about her restoration to power. The royal Yonge, 

. • , , ill • • 1 • Unknown to 

ministers had surrounded the captive with spies, and History. 
little escaped their notice, but they lived in hourly 
dread of 'a successful attempt upon the life of Eliza- 
beth. 

Nevertheless the queen could not make up her 
mind to send a sovereign princess to the block and 
silenced angrily any suggestion that Mary merited 
death. At length, however, the discovery of a plot Babington's 

J r plot, 1586. 

formed by several young Catholics of the court, to 
murder the queen in her palace, brought matters to 
a crisis. Her own correspondence and the confes- 
sions extorted from the conspirators by the rack 
furnished such strong evidence of Mary's knowledge 
of the plot that the queen was at last induced to 
sign her death-warrant. Elizabeth was allowed no 
time to change her mind, and Mary's execution at 
Fotheringay Castle followed speedily. Age and 
grief had not destroyed the poor prisoner's power 
of winning hearts. Her friends and attendants hung 
about her to the last ; even her little dog followed her 
onto the scaffold. But Protestant England breathed 
more freely now that she was dead. 

The Invincible Armada. — Mary's death put an 
end to Philip's hesitation. She had made over to 
him her claims to the English throne, and, filled with 
the hope of adding England to his empire, he set 
to planning an invasion of the island kingdom. All 
through the summer of 1587 the Spanish ports were 



238 



The Reign of a Great Queen 



alive with preparations for the Invincible Armada, 
as the Spaniards called the invading flotilla. But 
before it could set sail Drake made a descent upon 
Cadiz, destroying stores and shipping. This exploit, 
which he called " singeing the king of Spain's 
beard," delayed the sailing of the Armada until the 
next year. 

England was in no condition to repel attack. The 
navy was small and ill-found, and there were few 

trained soldiers. But 
thousands of brave 
sailors were spoiling 
for a " good open 
war " with the Span- 
iards, and hosts of 
eager volunteers 
poured into the 
muster at Tilbury. 
Best of all, it was a 
united people that 
awaited the coming 
of the Armada. In 
this hour of danger 
national feeling 
triumphed over re- 
ligious zeal, and 
A Yeoman of rm Guard. Catholics and Prot- 

estants alike armed 
for the defence of England. Elizabeth showed the 
Tudor spirit, and addressing the camp at Tilbury, 




When England and Spain were Rivals 239 

she said, " I am come amongst you, as you sec, paigrave, 
resolved in the midst and heat of battle to live T iUmty.* 
or die amongst you all. I know that I have the 
body but of a weak and feeble woman, but I have 
the heart of a king, and of a king of England, too." 

It was summer before the Armada arrived, but at Macauiay, 

.,..,. \ r^\ 1 The Armada 

last anxious watchers espied it sailing up the Channel I588 
in the form of a crescent, 130 ships manned with 8000 



f— -------- 









^^^i- 



^^^ 



M. 



The Armai >.\ 



1 1 if. English Flee 



sailors and carrying nearly 20,000 soldiers. Beacon 
fires blazed along the coast, and vessels swarmed out 
of every port, eager for the fray. All the great cap- 
tains were there, Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher, and 
the rest, while in command was Lord Howard of 
Effingham whose loyalty had overcome his zeal for 
Catholicism. They did not dare risk a general 
set-to with the Spanish ships, twice the size of the 



240 The Reign of a Great Que 01 

English, but here and there they cut out a galleon 01 
two, plucking off the feathers, as they called it. 

The Spaniards anchored off Calais to await the 
coming of the Duke of Parma, the famous Spanish 
general, with reinforcements from the Netherlands 
There the English sent fireships amongst them, which 
spread such dismay that they turned northward, the 
foe on their heels. Howard's ammunition was almost 
spent, and even yet England might have been lost 
had not a great storm broken out before which the 
unwieldy Spanish ships were unmanageable. Some 
The wreck of were wrecked off Scotland, others on the Irish coast. 
On the strand near Sligo eleven hundred bodies were 
counted cast up by the sea. Of the Invincible Armada 
only fifty-three ships returned to Spain. Philip re- 
ceived the news with unchanged countenance. To 
the defeated admiral he said generously, " I sent you 
to war with men, not with the winds." England's 
danger was over; for although the war continued 
for some years longer, Philip had done his worst and 
failed. 



Section 4. The Close of the Tudor Century 

Condition of England. — England at the end of the 
sixteenth century was very unlike the kingdom over 
which Henry VII reigned. For a hundred years the 
strong Tudor rulers had given the country order and 
peace. At the beginning of the century the peasant 
security. plowed with bow and buckler ready to hand, but 



The Close of the Tudor Century 



241 



long before Elizabeth's death the many-windowed 
manor-house which had replaced the gloomy feudal 
castle testified to the security of the land. 

England was fast becoming one of the wealthiest 
countries of Europe. The population, no longer 




Elizabeth's England. 



wasted by grievous wars, grew rapidly, and valuable 
additions were received in the thousands of Dutch 
and French Protestants who sought in England a 
refuge from persecution. As many of them were industrial 
skilful artisans, their adopted home was enriched by 
their coming. Manufactures took a great start, and 
the best market for English wool was now found at 



development. 



242 



TJie Reign of a Great Queen 



1600. 



Increased 
luxury. 



home. At the same time merchants began to look 
abroad, and several companies were formed with the 
idea of winning a share in the trade of foreign coun- 
tries. The most famous of these companies was the 
East India Company, which later played a great part 
in building up England's empire in the East. As a 
result of this industrial growth the towns began again 
to increase in importance, and foreigners visiting 
England spoke with wonder of the stir and activity 
in London streets. 

Wealth and prosperity brought many changes in 
ways of living. Everywhere increased luxury was 




State Carriage of Queen Elizabeth. 

apparent. The great recreation of the rich was 
building, and some of the most beautiful of English 
houses are of Elizabeth's time. The use of glass 
was now so common that great nobles no longer 
removed it from their windows for safe-keeping when 
leaving home. It is true houses were still often built 
of wood, but stone and brick were creeping in, and 
almost every structure of the better kind had its 
chimney and chimney-corner. Pillows, formerly 
used only by the sick, and carpets, were coming into 



The Close of the Tudor Century 



243 



general use. Among the country people pewter 
dishes had replaced the wooden trenchers of an 
earlier generation. The influence of America 
showed in the little store of silver possessed by 
every well-to-do family, while the sideboards of the 
great nobles were loaded down with vessels of the 




Ayr- 




Queen Elizabeth on a Progress to Hunsden House. 



same metal. It is stated that every guest-room in 
Wolsey's palace of York Place, later Whitehall, was 
furnished with a silver basin and ewer. 

The English had always been famed abroad for 
their good living, but an Italian observer now de- 
clared that they fared like kings, and complaint 



244 The Reigii of a Great Queen 

was made that they consumed four times as much 
Extrava- wine as formerly. The same luxury was apparent 
dress* 1H m dress. Men " wore a manor on their backs." 
On one occasion a great noble displayed a robe 
valued at ^1500, at least ten times that in our 
money of to-day. Elizabeth had the Tudor love of 
fine clothes, and her three thousand gowns are 
famed. Women's dress indeed had become so com- 
plicated that one writer remarked " a ship is sooner 
rigged than a woman." It was a stirring, energetic, 
money-getting, pleasure-loving age. Men fought and 
prayed, hunted, and made love, all with right good 
will. 

* The Beginnings of Modern England. — It was in the 
days of Elizabeth that England first realized that her 
England on calling was on the sea. About the middle of the 
century Englishmen began to venture forth upon the 
ocean in pursuit of trade or adventure. In the hope 
of reaching the golden lands of India without coming 
into collision with the Spanish who barred the south 
seas, much energy was spent in the effort to find a 
way round or through North America. But it was in 
the duel with Spain, a great sea-power, that the Eng- 
lish became truly a sea-faring nation. The defeat of 
the Armada left the ocean open, and Englishmen 
were at hand to take possession. During the last 
few years of the century their vessels swarmed every- 
where. Many were honest merchantmen, for the 
long continued wars on the Continent had given 
England the lion's share of the trade, but others 



the sea. 



The Close of the Tudor Century 245 

were nothing more or less than pirates. A Venetian 
wrote of these, " Theft is their proper business and 
the object of their voyage," and he declared they 
were "the disturbers of the whole world." 

Before Columbus was twenty years dead, Spain Attempts at 

. ... 111-it colonization 

had conquered a great empire in the world which he 
discovered, but it was not until 1578 that England 
sought to get a share in America. Then Sir 
Humphrey Gilbert, a brave Devon knight, undertook Longfellow, 
to plant a settlement in Newfoundland, but after two phrey 
attempts he was forced to give it up. On his way 
home his tiny vessel of ten tons went down in a great 
storm. The men on the companion ship said they 
last saw Gilbert " sitting abaft with a book in his 
hand, and crying to us, ' We are as near heaven by 
sea as by land.' But the same night suddenly the 
frigate's lights went out, and in that moment she was 
swallowed up." 

Sir Humphrey's work was carried on by his half- 
brother, Waiter Raleigh, a very witty, gallant gentle- sir waiter 
man to whom Elizabeth showed much favor. Al- 
though he never visited North America, Raleigh did 
more than any other man to interest Englishmen in 
colonization. He sent out an expedition to the land 
which he named Virginia in honor of the queen, 
and by his efforts a colony was planted on Roanoke 
Island. After a brief season of prosperity it was 
destroyed, none knew how, and to this day the fate of 
the lost colony of Roanoke remains a mystery. All 
other attempts by the English to plant settlements in 



246 The Reign of a Great Queen 

America ended in failure, and when the great queen 
passed away, England held no lands in the western 
world. 

The Conquest of Ireland. — England failed for the 
time to win territory in America, but nearer home 
schemes of conquest and colonization were more suc- 
cessful. When the first Tudor came to the throne, 
Ireland was no more conquered than in the days of 
Henry II and Strongbow. In the Pale, a small dis- 
trict including Dublin, English law was obeyed, but 
elsewhere the people lived in their own way, under 
the rule of their own chiefs, often fighting among 
themselves much as the English did before Alfred's 
time. 

Henry VII and his son tried to keep the peace in 
Ireland by backing up the stronger native chieftains, 
and this plan worked quite well, but in the reign of 
Mary an attempt was made to subdue the country by 
The Irish sending over English colonists who were given the 
lands of the Irish. After Elizabeth came to the 
throne this plan was continued, and at the same time 
great effort was made to Protestantize the Irish by 
force. This twofold attack upon their lands and 
their religion drove the people into rebellion. In 
1 565 an insurrection broke out in Ulster, followed by 
risings in Munster and Connaught, and during the 
next thirty-five years Irish history is an unbroken 
tale of horror. It was not until the close of Eliza- 
beth's reign that peace was restored. Ireland was 
at last conquered, but by methods well described bv 



plantations. 




West from 



Greenwich 



ENGRAV ED 3Y BORMAY 4 CO., 



The Close of the Tudor Century 247 

one of the English leaders who wrote home of his 

work in Connaught : " I marched into their country Lawless, 

. . . with determination to consume them with fire in Ireland. 

and sword, sparing neither old nor young. I burnt 

all their corn and houses, and committed to the sword 

all that could be found." Truly might Elizabeth say 

to her generals, " You have left me nothing but ashes 

and corpses to rule over." 

End of Elizabeth's Reign. — In 1603 the great queen 
died, having outlived most of the men whose deeds 
had made her reign so brilliant. Her wise counsellor, 
Lord Burleigh, was gone, and his place was taken, 
but not filled, by his son, Robert Cecil. Leicester, 
the one person perhaps whom Elizabeth truly loved, 
died in the year of the Armada. In her old age she 
bestowed her favor upon the Earl of Essex, but he 
repaid her fondness with disobedience and was sent 
to the block. Raleigh alone survived of the noble 
band of explorers and captains who had spread the 
fame of England over the world. Hawkins and 
Drake died in the West Indies, and Sir Richard 
Grenville lost his life in a vain attempt to defend 
his ship, the famous Revenge, against fifteen of Tennyson, 
the Spanish fleet. The greatest, however, of all 
Elizabethan Englishmen, William Shakespeare, was 
still in his prime, with the best of his work yet 
before him, and another eminent writer, Francis 
Bacon, was to live to wreck his good fame in the 
political strife of the next reign. 

The England of Elizabeth's youth was passing 



Elizabeth's 
end. 



248 



The Reign of a Great Queen 



away. She had opposed the Puritans in vain. They 
now formed a strong element in the nation, and their 
serious temper was wholly unlike the pleasure-loving 
ways of the earlier generation. The great queen's 
last days were lonely and sad. Her courage seemed 




**2£-a 






The Globe Theatre. 

Here Shakespeare's plays were performed. 



gone, and she lived in constant fear of assassina- 
tion. Day and night she sat silent in her chair 
propped up with pillows and a sword by her side. 
Occasionally there was a flash of the old imperi- 
ous temper. Once when Robert Cecil declared 



The Close of the Tudor Century 249 

that she must go to bed, she broke out in anger, 
14 Must ! is must a word to be addressed to princes ? 
Little man, little man ; thy father, if he had been 
alive, durst not have used that word." But her work 
was done. She found England weak and divided, 
she left it strong and united. Well might the nation, 
groaning under the misrule of the Stuarts, look back 
with longing to " the days of good Queen Bess." 

Books for Study 

Creighton, The Age of Elizabeth. 

Corbett, Drake. 

Fox-Bourne, Sir Philip Sidney. 

Harrison, England. 

Hume, Sir Walter Raleigh. 

Rait, Mary Queen of Scots. 

Suggestive Questions 

Section i. — What were Elizabeth's difficulties ? How did 
she regard the religious question ? 

Section 2. — What was Mary Stuart's claim to the English 
crown ? Describe the causes for Mary's downfall. 

Section 3. — Show on a map the extent of the Spanish 
empire. Describe Elizabeth's foreign policy. Why was Mary 
Stuart put to death ? 

Section 4. — How did the manner of living change under 
Elizabeth ? Why was there rebellion in Ireland ? Tell just 
what Elizabeth did for England. 



Special Topics 

Drake's voyage round the world : Barnes, Drake and his Yeoynen. 
Elizabethan homes : Harrison, England, or Kendall. Source 
Book, 67. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE RULE OF THE STUARTS 

But that two-handed engine at the door 
Stands ready to strike once and strike no more. 

— Milton, Lycidas. 

He first put arms into Religion's hand. 
And timorous conscience unto courage manned ; 
The soldier taught that inward mail to wear. 
And fearing God. how they should nothing fear. 

— Marvell, Poem upon the Death of Cromwell. 



Section 



The Beginning of Trouble 



Why James 
received the 



Scott, 



The First Stuart King (1603 1625;. — Elizabeth 
was the last of the Tudor name. She was followed 
on the throne by her kinsman, James Stuart, king 
of Scotland. James was of Tudor blood, being the 
great-grandson of Henry VII's daughter Margaret, 
who married James IV of Scotland. This gave him 
a claim to the English crown. Then, too, many 
favored him, hoping that the Border wars between 
Scotland and England would cease if the same king 
ruled over both countries. Thus it came about that 
again a Scottish king was crowned on the Stone of 
Destiny, only it was at Westminster, not at Scone. 

The new king was the son of Mary Stuart and the 
hapless Darnley, and he was only a few months old 

2;o 




James VI c i - 
Agec e a 
Later James I if England 

2;t 



252 



The Rule of the Stuarts 



when the Scottish nobles, having deposed his mother, 
put him upon the throne. There was little likeness 




Coronation of James i. 



James I, 1603-1625, m. Anne of Denmark 



I I 

Henry, Prince of Charles 1, m. Henrietta 

Wales 1625-1649 I Maria of France 



I 
Elizabeth, m. Frederick V, 
Elector 
Palatine 

I 



I I 

Charles II, (nominally) Mary, m. 



1649- 1660, 
(actually) 1660-1685 
m. Catherine of 
Braganza 



Prince of 
Orange 



James II, 



I 

Prince 
Rupert 



m. (1) Anne 

Hyde; m. (2) Mary of 
Modena 

I I 1 I 

William, m. Mary, Anne, lames 
Prince of Or- 1689- 1702- (the Old 
ange, King of 1694 1714 Pretender) 

Great Britain 

and Ireland, Charles Ed- 

1689 1702 ward (The 

Young Pre- 
tender) 



Sophia 

George I, 

1714-1727 



The Beginning of Trouble 253 

between him and beautiful Mary Stuart. In figure 
he was fat and ungainly, looking the more clumsy 
because he always wore a quilted doublet for pro- 
tection against assassination. Nor had he Mary's 
tact and charm of manner. His habits were untidy, 
and he sat with his tongue lolling out of his mouth. 
But he was not lacking in shrewdness, and he had 
been carefully educated. The French king called 
him the most learned fool in Christendom. He had 
long set his heart on winning the English crown. 
In his fear of offending Elizabeth, thus injuring his 
prospects, he had contented himself with a formal 
protest when she sent his mother to the block. 

James and the Puritans. — The Puritans hoped to 
find in James a friend. He had been brought up 
in Presbyterian Scotland, and they believed that James and 

......... th e Presby- 

he would sympathize with their dislike of forms and terians. 
ceremonies and their liking for sermons, and would 
take their part against the bishops, who bore hardly 
upon them. But they were much mistaken. James 
had suffered a good deal under the severe discipline 
of a Presbyterian tutor, and in later years he had 
met w r ith much opposition from the plain-spoken 
Presbyterian clergy, one of whom called him to 
his face "a witless fool." As he classed the Puri- , 
tans with the Presbyterian party, he was not likely 
to show them much favor. 

At first these things were not known, and there Hampton 
was much rejoicing when James summoned the bish- ference, 1604. 
ops and some of the Puritan clergy to Hampton 



254 



TJie Rale of the Stuarts 



Court to discuss their differences before him. This 
looked fair, but as it turned out the king gave the 
Puritans no chance. He scolded and browbeat them, 
and ended with declaring that he would make chem 
conform or else he would harry them out of the 
land. 

Now the truth was, James had been a king from 
boyhood, and he cared a great deal about his roya! 
power and dignity. As he felt sure that the Puritans 
were little inclined to let him do as he chose, he was 
not disposed to favor them. On the other hand, the 

james and bishops were very respectful and seemed ready to 
uphold him in all things, so he came to feel that they 
were his surest support, and he was constantly say- 
ing, "No bishop, no king." 

The Gunpowder Plot. — Although James bore the 

1605. Puritans no love, yet he was not friendly to the Ro- 

man Catholics, and soon after he came to the throne 
the persecuting laws against them were revived. 
Among the Catholics there was much disappoint- 
ment at this, for they had hoped that the son of 
Mary Stuart would show them mercy, and a few of 
the more desperate took to plotting. Robert Catesby, 
a Catholic gentleman, devised a plan for destroying 
king, lords, and commoners all at one fell swoop. 
He drew into the plot a number of others of his 

Guy Fawkes. faith, but his most active assistant was Guy Fawkes, 
a soldier who had seen much service in the Nether- 
lands. The plan was to blow up the building where 
Parliament sat at the time when the king, accom- 



TJie Beginning of Trouble 



255 



panied by the Prince of Wales, came to open the 
session. The conspirators were so fortunate as to 
secure the use of a cellar under Parliament House, 
and here, under the pretext of storing coal, they 




The Guv Fawkes Vault. 



managed 



to conceal a large quantity of gun- 
powder. 

The plan was a shrewd one, and might have suc- 
ceeded, had not one of the conspirators in his desire 
to save the life of his brother-in-law, a member of 
the House of Lords, sent 
written in a disguised hand. 
The vaults under Parliament House were searched, 



him a note of warning Failure of 
. . , the plot. 

Suspicion was aroused. 



256 



The Rule of the Stuarts 



Effect of the 
plot. 



Causes for 
trouble. 



and Fawkes, who was on guard, was seized. In spite 
of cruel torture he refused to disclose the names of 
the others. What he endured is shown by the signa- 
tures to his statements. At first " Guido Fawkes " 
is written neatly and boldly ; a few days later the 
" Guido " is in broken characters, and the " Fawkes " 
is indicated by two trembling strokes. In the end 
most of those concerned in the plot were taken and 
put to death. 

This attempt of the Catholics filled the people 
with a horror which they were long in overcoming 
and which showed itself in the popish panic of 1679. 
Ever since James's time the 5th of November, the day 
when the plot was to have been carried out, is kept 
as Guy Fawkes Day, and each year at the opening 
of Parliament some of the officers of the crown walk 
in solemn procession through the vaults of the Houses 
of Parliament to see that all is safe. 

The Quarrels between James and Parliament. — The 
Tudor kings generally got on very well with Parlia- 
ment. Henry VIII was strong enough to make a 
tool of it, while Elizabeth possessed so entirely the 
confidence of the people that her will was seldom 
opposed ; but if it were, then she gave way gracefully. 
James, on the contrary, was frequently quarrelling 
with Parliament. He had very lofty ideas of his 
dignity, and he was bent on having his own way, but 
he could not overawe his subjects like Henry or win 
their respect like Elizabeth. His undignified ways, 
in unpleasant contrast with the stately old queen, 



The Beginning of Trouble 257 

disgusted many. Then, too, the strong Puritan 
party in the Commons looked with little favor upon 
the king after the Hampton Court Conference. 

It was over money matters that James and Parlia- 
ment generally differed. He was constantly asking 
for money, for his family was large and he was a 
great spendthrift. If Parliament refused to grant impositions 
him all he wished, then he tried to help himself out 
by taxing articles brought into England. Most 
Englishmen thought this was against the law, and 
the Commons talked so plainly to James about it 
that for several years he refused to summon Parlia- 
ment at all. 

The Rule of Favorites. — Elizabeth filled her court 
with noble, brilliant men, but the chief merit of James 
Stuart's friends was their good looks. And neverthe- 
less their influence in public affairs was unbounded. 
The first of the favorites was a handsome, broad- 
shouldered young fellow named Robert Carr who Robert can-, 
attracted the king's notice by breaking a leg at a 
royal hunt. After a few years he was supplanted in 
the king's good graces by George Villiers, who was George 

i 11 1 t 1 17-11- Villiers. 

designedly thrown in James s way. Villiers was 
handsome, quick-witted, and attractive in manner and 
bearing, and James loved him like a son, calling him 
"Steenie," while he addressed the king as "dear dad 
and gossip." Wealth and titles and honors were 
heaped upon him. His favor was a sure road to 
promotion, and the most distinguished men of the 
realm were humble suitors for his good word. No 



258 



The Rule of the Stuarts 



The king's 
desire for a 
Spanish 
alliance. 



1616. 



wonder that his weak head was soon turned by his 
success and that he became arrogant and over- 
bearing. 

James and Spain. — Soon after James came to the 
throne he put an end to the war with Spain, rightly 

believing that the 
country needed 
peace. But he 
made the mistake 
of thinking that 
a close alliance 
with the Spanish 
would be a fine 
thing. He did not 
share the English 
prejudice against 
Roman Catholics, 
and his vanity 
was flattered at 
the idea of be- 
coming the ally 
of the powerful 
king of Spain. 
H is subj ects, 
however, hated 
the Spaniards as much as ever, and strongly opposed 
his plan. 

In 1618 an event occurred which increased popular 
opposition to James's policy. Backed by the king, 
Sir Walter Raleigh had undertaken an expedition to 




A Musketeer. 

Time of James I. 



The Beginning of Trouble 



259 



Guiana in search of gold. James expressly charged 
him not to molest the Spaniards, but as it was well 
known that they claimed all the region in question, 
Raleigh naturally thought the king did not mean 
what he said. The search for gold was fruitless, 
and as might have 
been foreseen there 
was trouble between 
the English and their 
rivals. James was 
very angry at the 
result of the expedi- 
tion, and sent Raleigh 
to the block on an old 
charge of treason. 
Raleigh died as 
bravely as he had 
lived, but the nation 
mourned bitterly for 
the last of the Eliza- 
bethan heroes, declar- 
ing his life had been 
sacrificed to the king's 
love for Spain. 

In the same year that Raleigh was put to death, Death of 

•11 ii ^ 1 i Sir Walter 

a terrible war broke out in Germany between the Raleigh 
Catholics and the Protestants, and James's daughter 
Elizabeth, who had married the Count Palatine, one The Thirty 

. ... Years' War 

of the Protestant German princes, was driven trom 
her home in Heidelberg. The sympathies of the 




Officer of Pikemen. 

Time of James I. 



260 The Rule of the Stuarts 

English were stirred, and they were hot for war with 
Spain, who was aiding the Catholics. But James 
still hoped that if he and the king of Spain could 
come to an agreement, the Count Palatine might be 
restored to his inheritance without fighting. Here 
was a new cause for misunderstanding between the 
king and his subjects. 

The Spanish Match. — Bent on carrying his point, 
James tried to arrange a marriage between his eldest 
son Charles and the Spanish Infanta. To this the 
king of Spain raised many objections, although he 
did not refuse outright. Finally Charles, becoming 
impatient of the delay, formed with Villiers, now 
Duke of Buckingham and his boon companion, a 

Theexpedi- plan of going to Madrid in disguise to woo the lady. 

Madrid, 1623. James agreed very unwillingly, declaring with tears in 
his eyes that he would never see " Baby Charles " 
again. The two young men made an adventurous 
journey to Madrid, where, however, rigid Spanish 
etiquette allowed the impatient suitor but a distant 
glimpse of the lady. Once, indeed, Charles jumped 
over a garden wall and threw himself at the Infanta's 
feet, but she screamed and ran away. Buckingham 
also had a grievance in the cool treatment of the 
haughty Spanish nobles, who looked upon him as an 
upstart. Finally, in disgust, the two young men came 
back to England, and all talk of a Spanish marriage 
was at an end. This pleased the people, and for 
once Buckingham was popular. 



The Rule of Charles and Buckingham 261 

Section 2. The Rule of Charles and Buckingham 

Charles, the " Martyr-king " (1625-1649). — Soon 
after this James died, the victim of drinking habits, 
and " Baby Charles " ascended the throne. The 
young king was very unlike his father. In person 
he was rather small, but his face was fine and his 
bearing dignified. His life was moral, and his feeling 
was deeply religious. Unfortunately he was filled cnariess 

•1 r 1 ■ 1 it- tt view of 

with a sense or his royal power and dignity. He kingship, 
believed that God had set him to rule over England, 
and that no man had a right to call him to account 
for what he did. Such a belief, running sharply 
counter to the English feeling that Parliament ought 
to have a share in the government, was sure to make 
trouble. Unfortunately, Charles would be slow to 
see this, for unlike the Tudors, he did not at all un- 
derstand his subjects, but lived apart in a little world 
of his own. 

At first these things were not suspected by the 
people, and there was much rejoicing over the new 
ruler. " We can hope everything from the king who 
now governs us," was said in Parliament. It was 
not long, however, before men's eyes were opened. 
After the breaking off of the Spanish match Charles 
married the French king's sister, Princess Henrietta 
Maria. The English objected to her as a Roman 
Catholic, and the dislike grew as Charles, who was causes for 
a truly affectionate husband, fell more and more 
under her influence. Even greater was the dissatis- 



262 



The Rule of the Stuarts 



War with 
France and 
Spain. 



1625. 



1627. 



Forced loans 
and arbitrary 
imprison- 
ment. 



faction when it was seen that Buckingham was now 
more powerful than ever. Charles's nature was rather 
slow and timid, and he was glad to lean upon the 
impulsive, self-confident favorite, whose opinions 
accorded so well with his own. 

Buckingham's Misrule. — Before long these two 
unwise men had involved England in war with both 
Spain and France. Buckingham thought to win 
popularity by sending an expedition to Cadiz after 
the fashion of Drake. Through mismanagement this 
failed after costing England many lives and much 
money. An attempt to aid the Huguenots of La 
Rochelle in their struggle against the French govern- 
ment ended even more disastrously. - 

Grievances were accumulating fast. England had 
now a double war on her hands, the royal demands 
for money were pressing, and if they were not satis- 
fied, Charles resorted to violent and unlawful ways of 
getting what he wanted. For example, a loan of 
money was asked of wealthy persons, and those who 
refused to pay were thrown into prison and kept 
there without trial. Moreover, the king showed him- 
self no more friendly to the Puritans than his father 
had been ; all his favors were given to the bishops' 
party. Even worse than this in the eyes of many 
was his lenient treatment of the Roman Catholics. 

The Fall of the Favorite. — The people saw in 
Buckingham the cause of all their woes, and when 
Charles's first Parliament met it refused to grant any 
money until the minister had been called to account. 



The Rule of Charles and Buckingham 263 




Charles I. 



264 The Rule of the Stuarts 

Attacks upon Thereupon the king resolved to govern without Par- 
Buckingham. .. . ,. 1 1 • 1 T-. I 

liament, getting supplies as best he might. But the 
cost of the wars and the extravagant expenditure of 
the court soon forced him to summon Parliament, 
which, however, met in no better humor than the 
last. Instead of voting supplies, the Commons re- 
newed the attack upon the favorite, and laid a long 
accusation against him before the House of Lords. 
While their leader, Sir John Eliot, a noble and elo- 
quent young Cornish squire, was presenting the 
charges, Buckingham stood by, laughing scornfully. 
One of the deputation turned upon him, " Are these 
things to be jeered at ? My Lord, I can show you 
where a man of a greater blood than your lordship, 
as high in place and power, and as deep in the 
favor of the king as you, hath been hanged for as 
small a crime as the least of these articles con- 
tains." To save his friend, Charles hastily dissolved 
Parliament, and imprisoned Eliot and some of the 
others. 

But Buckingham's race was almost run. Two 
Assassina- vears later he was struck down in his pride and inso- 

tion of Buck- ' . 

ingnam, 1628. lence by the assassin s knife. A certain Lieutenant 
John Felton thought at the same time to help Eng- 
land and to avenge some private wrongs of his own, 
and watching his chance, he stabbed the favorite to 
the heart. Charles threw himself on his bed with a 
burst of tears when the news reached him, but the 
crowd showered blessings on the murderer's head as 
he was carried through the streets of London. 



The Rule of Charles and Buckingham 265 

The Breach between King and Parliament. — 
Nothing was gained by striking down the favorite, 
for, as many had come to see, the real difficulty was 
with Charles. Shortly before Buckingham's death 
Charles had summoned a new Parliament in the vain 
hope of getting supplies. In the Commons sat many 
men whose names are famous in English history, — 
Eliot, Wentworth, Pvm, Hampden, and, greatest of 
all, Cromwell. Under YVentworth's leadership a 
paper was drawn up declaring that it was unlawful 
for the king to demand forced loans or to cause a 
subject to be imprisoned on the mere royal command. 
This is the famous Petition of Right worthy to stand Petition of 
beside the Charter. After a long struggle Charles 1£ ' l6 ' 
agreed to observe these principles. 

This did not end the matter, for the king under- 
stood one thing by the Petition, and the Commons 
another. A fresh grievance was added by Charles's 
increasing friendliness to the bishops, who upheld 
his claims to be above the law. Matters came to a 
crisis a year later, when Eliot read a set of resolu- Btiot'i 

. ~ r , resolutions, 

tions in the Commons protesting against favor toward 
the Catholics, and condemning as traitors those who 
supported the king in raising money without the con- 
sent of Parliament. A scene of wild excitement fol- 
lowed. The speaker tried to break up the sitting 
by leaving the hall, but two members held him down 
in his chair, another locked the door, putting the key 
in his pocket, while a fourth read the resolutions, 
which were answered with shouts of " Aye," "Aye." 



266 



The Rule of the Stuarts 



All this time officers sent by the king to summon the 
Commons before him were knocking at the closed 

Dissolution doors. A dissolution followed at once, and for eleven 

meat, 1629. years no Parliament met in England. 

Section 3. Colonial and Commercial Expansion 

The Beginnings of Greater Britain. — While Eng- 
land was beset with these difficulties at home she 
was beginning a great work abroad. The repeated 
attempts to secure a foothold in the New World ended 
at length in success. Spain asserted her right to 
all the West Indies, but paid little attention to the 
smaller islands. In 1605 English sailors finding 
Barbadoes unoccupied claimed it as British territory. 
It remained henceforth under England's control, al- 
though no settlement was made for more than twenty 
years. This beginning was followed up by taking 
possession of other of the Leeward Islands, and of 
the Bermudas. In the impending contest for control 
of America and of the sea, these islands were a great 
help to England. 

The English had never lost sight of the fair prom- 
ise of Raleigh's territory of Virginia, and in 1606 a 
company of Londoners secured from the king a 
charter granting to them part of this region. A year 
later they landed their first band of emigrants on the 
banks of what is now the James River in Virginia. 
For some time the little settlement fared badly ; the 
right men were not sent out; the Indians were not 
friendly ; moreover, because of the great profits from 



Colonial and Commercial Expansion 267 

tobacco the raising of corn was neglected and settlers 
were often at the point of starvation. Indeed, had it 
not been for the energy of the company in England 
the enterprise would have ended in failure. By 1625, 
however, the colony was on a sure footing, steadily 
increasing in numbers and wealth. 

Another company, composed of Plymouth and 
Devon men, was organized at the same time as the 
London Company. To this was granted the right 
to plant settlements in the northern part of Raleigh's 
Virginia. The company was, however, slow to make 
use of this right. But from time to time groups of 
Puritans whom James had "harried" out of the land 
settled within the limits of the grant. In 1620 a band 
of Englishmen aiming for southern Virginia were 
carried out of their course and found themselves on 
the coast of what is now Massachusetts. Here they 
planted a colony called Plymouth. These colonists Founding of 
were Independents, Puritans who had separated from ^r^' 
the Anglican Church. To escape persecution they 
fled first to Holland and then to America. Poor and 
few in number, they suffered great hardships, but 
under the wise guidance of their first governors, John 
Carver and William Bradford, they held firmly to 
their purpose of founding a new and freer England 
in America. 

In 1628 a movement destined to have important 
results was set on foot in England. A few men of 
substance and standing, chiefly from the eastern 
counties, united in securing from the Plymouth Com- 



268 



The Rule of the Stuarts 



pany a grant of land including what is now the state 
of Massachusetts. They were Puritan in sympathy 
although they still held to the Anglican Church, and 
their hope was to build up in the New World a 
Puritan commonwealth. In 1629 they organized 
themselves as the Massachusetts Bay Company 
under a royal charter which gave them wide powers 
of self-government. Before another year had passed 
the company, led by Robert Winthrop, a Suffolk 
squire, and accompanied by several hundred men and 
women of like feeling, had crossed the sea, and by 
1634 a strong colony of sixteen towns and more than 
four thousand inhabitants had been established on 
the shores of Massachusetts Bay. 

Colonization of Ulster. — During these same years 
a colonization scheme of a very different kind was 
being carried out nearer home. James had not been 
long on the throne when rebellion again broke out in 
north Ireland. By vigorous and ruthless measures it 
was repressed. There followed the confiscation of a 
large part of Ulster, which was portioned out among 
English and Scotch settlers on the condition that they 
should never resell their lands to the natives. Many 
thousands took advantage of the opportunity to secure 
estates, and when Charles came to the throne there 
was in north Ireland a large and prosperous Protes- 
tant colony seated upon the lands wrung from the 
unhappy Irish. 

Commercial Growth. — The foreign trade which 
sprang up in Elizabeth's reign increased rapidly 
under her successors, and English ships were now 



The Persona/ Rule of Charles 269 

often seen along the coasts of Africa or in the Indian 
Ocean or, nearer home, in Baltic or Levant ports. 
The uncertainty and expense of these distant under- 
takings were too great for private individuals to incur, 
so commerce was in the hands of chartered companies, 
who secured themselves against loss by obtaining 
special privileges which amounted to a trading mo- 
nopoly. The most important of these companies, the 
famous East India Company, after years of depres- 
sion began to prosper greatly in spite of the rivalry 
of the Dutch, who were fast building up a world- 
wide commerce. 

Section 4. The Personal Rule of Charles 

The Royal Advisers. — Charles was now to try rul- 
ing England without Parliament. He had, however, 
secured the aid of two able advisers. One was Will- wuiiam 
iam Laud, Bishop of London and later Archbishop 
of Canterbury. Laud was the son of a Reading 
clothier, a small, mean-looking man, but learned, 
hard-working, and conscientious. He meant to do 
his best for England and for the Church. Unfortu- 
nately, he had no sympathy with the Puritans, now 
a very strong and active party. Working hand in 
hand with Laud was Sir Thomas Wentworth, leader Thomas 

Wentworth. 

m the Commons in the great struggle for the Peti- 
tion of Right, but now a member of the royal coun- 
cil, and high in the king's favor. Wentworth was 
an able, ambitious man, having no real sympathy 
with popular ideas, and his opposition to Charles had 
been due to his jealousy of Buckingham. When once 



270 The Rule of the Stuarts 

the favorite was dead he was ready enough to enter 
the king's service. His desertion of Parliament's 
cause aroused much anger. John Pym, one of his 
fellows in the Commons, said to him, " You are 
going to leave us, but we will never leave you while 
your head is on your shoulders." For the present, 
however, Wentworth was but little in England, hav- 
ing been sent by Charles to govern Ireland, where, 
as usual, there was trouble. But he and Laud wrote 
each other long letters discussing their plans for 
carrying out a policy which they dubbed " Thor- 
ough," meaning thereby the removal of all checks 
upon the will of the king. 

Laud and the Puritans. — All went well with 
Charles for a time ; there was peace abroad and fair 
prosperity at home. Sir John Eliot, the " apostle of 
liberty," had died in prison, where he was thrown for 
his share in the last proceedings in Parliament. 
But Laud began soon to stir up trouble by his meas- 

Laud's ures in the Church. He cared a great deal for 

forms and ceremonies, and he desired that all people 
should worship in his way, so with the support of 
the king he tried to force his views upon the country. 
The Puritans thought many of Laud's practices 
were wrong, but all nonconformity was harshly put 
down. Clergymen who refused to wear a surplice, 
or to use the sign of the cross, as Laud commanded, 
lost their livings. Those who wrote or spoke against 
the new system were brought before the Court of 

Persecution, the Star Chamber and severely punished. For e_x- 



The Persona/ Rule of Charles 



271 



ample, a Puritan clergyman named Burton was 
condemned to lose his ears and pay a fine of ^5000 
for calling bishops "caterpillars" and " anti-Christian 
mushrumps." At the same time John Prynne, a 
learned but sharp-tongued lawyer, suffered similar 




The Sovereign of the Seas. 

Built in 1637. Commanded by Monk, Blake, and the Duke of York. 



punishment for declaring that the bishops were de- 
liberately paving the way to popery. Such meas- 
ures aroused deep indignation even among those 
who were not Puritans. 

Ship Money and John Hampden. — Charles had 
much trouble in getting all the money he needed, 



Tkt Rult of tke Stuarts 

since the ent to vote him t 

Finally he hit upon the plan of ask: g 
towns to contribute to the support of the navy. This 
had been done before, but only in time of war. 
theme: rough with some 

grumbling. Bu: nd and then a third demand 

T?jp money soon followed, addressed not or. 
seaports, but to inland towr 1. People 

that Charles _ g control over the 

purses of his subjects. Thereupon, John Hampden, 
-ng Buckinghamshire squir. m for 

his activity in the last Parliament, bole i to 

The amount -all, only thirty 

shillings, but a great principle was at stake. V 
the : -i in court, the judges decided in the 

king's favor held their places at his plea s 

iid not dare oppose him. r.ow felt that 

there was no ch :bmit in all thir_ 

to rebeL 

The Bishops' War." — The signal for revolt came 
from the north. Charles and Laud, pleased with 
their forcing their views upon England, 

tried the same policy in Sec: A beginning 

made by ordering the Scotch to use a prayer-book 
similar to the English. This at once aroused the 
fierce Presb; n of the people, who regarded 

it as the first step toward the reintroduction of 
popery. When the new liturg read for the 

first time in the cathedral in Edinburgh, such a riot 
broke out that the reader barely escaped with his 



K: Par Ham 

life. It is said that the signa man 

who picked up a stool upon which she was sitting 
and thre ;he clergyman's head. All cla 

entered into an agreement called the " National «• 
I d unite in resisting I and rx 

.arles had been wise, he would ded, but 

in his blind obstinacy he thought to bring the Scotch 
to terms by a show of force. B e in 

earnest, and readier to fight than he was. To carry 
on war, men and mc i after 

:»nal rule, Charles found himself 
forced to summon Parliament again. 

Parliament meets again in 1640 — 
nation had again a chance to speak through its rep- 
poke in no uncertain tone. Led 
by John Pym. the Commons refused to vote supplies 
until certain things had beer set right 
words, was m - wanted, and according 

dissolved Parliament As if had sal but three v. 
it was dubbed the Short ParliamenL 

During the summer following, Scotch affairs 1 
from bad to worse, Wentworth, now E -oafford, 

ute and daring as ever, declared. ^iust 

whip these people into the:: but this 

easier said than done, for half England thought the 
Scotch were right 11 :h difficulty that Charles 

i a small army, and even this he could not pav. 



274 



The Ride of the Stuarts 



The Long 
Parliament. 



Strafford's 
trial. 



Browning, 
Strafford. 



The Covenanting force poured over the Border, and 
established its headquarters at Newcastle. From 
all sides came now the demand for a Parliament. 
Charles yielded to necessity, and in November the 
Long Parliament, as it came to be called, the most 
famous Parliament in English history, met at West- 
minster. The question was now to be tried whether 
England was to be governed according to the king's 
will or the will of the nation. 

The Fall of Strafford. — Parliament at once pro- 
ceeded boldly to business. It had the support of the 
nation, and it knew, if need were, the Covenanting 
force would come to its aid. From the outset the 
Commons took the lead, marshalled by John Pym, 
whose influence was so great that his enemies nick- 
named him " King Pym." A cry for justice was 
raised against the royal ministers. Strafford pre- 
sented himself fearlessly in the House of Lords, 
but he was at once seized and sent to the Tower, 
where he was soon followed by Laud. After some 
delay Strafford was brought to trial in Westminster 
Hall. All the leading men were present, and so 
great was the press to get in that the place was 
filled before seven o'clock in the morning. The king 
sat screened from view behind a lattice, anxiously 
watching the proceedings. Before this brilliant 
assembly, Strafford stood day by day, bravely defend- 
ing himself. He was shown to have committed 
many high-handed acts, but this did not prove him a 
traitor, for as Strafford himself remarked, a hundred 



King against Parliament 275 

white rabbits could never make a white horse. 
Nevertheless, Lords and Commons declared him 
guilty of treason, of attempting to overturn the 
liberties of the country. The truth was they dared 
not let him go free. He was the mainstay of the 
royal despotism, and, as Lord Essex observed, " Stone 
dead hath no fellow." Charles had promised his 
minister, upon the word of a king, that he should 
not suffer "in life, honour, or fortune." But now he 
gave way before the fury of the people and signed 
the act condemning Strafford to death. The great strafford' 
minister died as he had lived. Warned of the 
multitude waiting to see him die, he answered, " I 
dare look death in the face, and the people too," and 
he marched calmly to execution, only pausing beneath 
the window of the cell where Laud was confined to 
receive the last blessing of his friend. 

Remodelling Church and State. — For months Par- 
liament was at work doing away with old and new 
abuses. Charles was forced to agree never to levy 
ship money again or to impose taxes or duties without 
the consent of Parliament. The Court of the Star 
Chamber and other irregular courts, where men 
were condemned to lose their ears, or pay ruinous 
fines, or to suffer lifelong imprisonment without 
proper trial, were abolished. Never again was so 
long a time to elapse without a Parliament. 

These laws were passed without difficulty, but 
another matter was not so easily settled. There was 
one party only in Parliament when it was a question 



276 The Rule of the Stuarts 

Division over of the king's power, but there were many parties 

Church ... 

reform. when the Church was under consideration. Laud 

had been overthrown, but this did not bring peace. 
The Puritans had suffered at the hands of the 
bishops, and they wanted to get rid of them alto- 
gether. Many of them desired also to change the 
prayer-book. But there was another party which 
wished that there should still be bishops, and which 
was deeply attached to the prayer-book, and opposed 
any change. 

The Policy of the King. — All this time Charles 
made no attempt to control matters. He agreed 
to everything proposed, but secretly he was plotting 
to get rid of Parliament. Unlike Elizabeth, he never 
knew when he was beaten, and he hoped still to 
regain in some way or other the power he had lost. 
Yielding to the advice of his fond, foolish wife, he 
allowed himself to be drawn into schemes to get aid 
from France or to bring the army from the north to 
overthrow Parliament. Finally at the end of the 
summer he went to Scotland, and there, in the hope 
of dividing his enemies, he agreed to all the demands 
of the Scotch leaders. Shrewd John P} T m saw through 
every move of the king, and thwarted it, but he and 
some of the others were coming to feel that there 
was no hope of doing anything with Charles. 

Division in Parliament. — The outbreak of a ter- 
rible rebellion in Ireland destroyed the hope, already 
small, of a peaceful settlement in England. The 
iron hand of Strafford had kept the Irish down for a 



King against Parliament 



277 




278 



The Rule of the Stuarts 



Rebellion in 
Ireland, 1641. 



Grand Re- 
monstrance. 



time, but now without warning they rose in one 
desperate attempt to drive out their oppressors. 
The English and the Scotch settlers in Ulster were 
mercilessly hunted down, tortured, murdered. Prob- 
ably several thousand men, women, and children 
perished in a few days. When the tidings, greatly 
exaggerated, reached England, a cry of horror was 
raised. Some openly accused Charles of having 
deliberately stirred up the Irish to rebel, but of this 
he may be cleared. One thing, however, was cer- 
tain, an army must at once be sent to Ireland to 
put down the rebellion ; but if it went under the 
king's orders what was to prevent him from using 
it, after the Irish had been subdued, against Parlia- 
ment ? 

It was fear of this that lead Pym to draw up the 
Grand Remonstrance. This famous document was 
an appeal to the nation to support Parliament in 
further attacks upon the king's power. There was 
a large party led by Edward Hyde and Falkland, 
who opposed this step, for they were afraid that now 
Parliament was getting too powerful, and it was only 
after a long, hot debate that the Remonstrance was 
adopted. At one time the members were on the 
point of coming to blows, swords were drawn, and 
it needed all Hampden's tact to avert bloodshed. 
All felt that this was a crisis. Cromwell said to Falk- 
land, as he left the House, " If the Remonstrance 
had been rejected, I would have sold to-morrow all 
that I possess and left England forever." 



King against Parliament 279 

The Attack on the Five Members. — Many now 
were more afraid of Parliament than of the king. 
This was Charles's chance, and if he had been 
wise, he would have joined with the moderate men 
who opposed the Grand Remonstrance, but he was 
blind to his opportunities. Excitement was grow- 
ing. Every day there were riots in London streets 
between the city rabble and the rowdy followers of 
the court. It was at this time that the term Round- Roundhead 
head was applied to the Parliamentary party, because 
of the cropped heads of the rank and file of their 
followers. In retort the king's friends were dubbed 
Cavaliers or soldiers of fortune. 

Charles took now a very unwise step. He thought 
if the leaders of Parliament were shut up in the 
Tower, matters would mend. So he ordered the 
arrest of five members of the Commons, Pym among The king 
the number. To make sure they did not escape he arrestee 
went himself to Parliament House, accompanied by a vemembers 
file of soldiers. It is said that his high-spirited wife 
urged him to this step, saying, " Go, you coward! 
and pull those rogues out by the ears, or never see 
my face more." As the story runs, Henrietta Maria 
sat anxious in her chamber after the king's depar- 
ture. At last, thinking all was safe, she exclaimed to 
her favorite, the beautiful Lady Carlisle, " Rejoice 
with me, for at this hour the king is master in his 
kingdom ! Pym and his followers are arrested by 
this time." 

Now Lady Carlisle was a warm friend of the great 



The Rule of the Stuarts 

leader, and at once she hurried a messenger off to 
Westminster to give warning. Charles had been 
delayed, and when he arrived, the five members were 
gone. Entering the House, the king looked about 
for those he sought. Then fa bed himself in 

the speaker's chair, and summoned them by name. 
There was no answer, and convinced that his stroke 
had failed, he left the House mid shouts of " Priv- 
ilege ! privi'r, from the members. It was con- 
sidered an outrage upon Parliament to attack a 
member in his place, and the feeling that the king 
could not be trusted was now stronger than ever. 

Section 6. The Great Rebell::: 

The Beginning of Strife. — Early in 1642 Charles 

left London, never to return until he was brought 

back a prisoner seven years later. For a little 

longer both sides tried to patch up a peace, but 

in vain. Pvm's party- demanded control of the 

militia and that there should be no more bishops. 

They felt they were not safe with less, but this was 

more than Charles thought he could grant and 

At y.r-^- remain a king. War finally began when in August 

the royal standard was set up at Nottingham Castle. 

On it were inscribed the words, " Render unto C 

the things that are 

:t .:■:-- :- Parliament was intrenched in London, so the king 

: - ^' " established his headquarters at Oxford, and the 

gray old university buildings were alive with the 



The G :ellion 28 1 

stir of war. Charles's strength was in the country 
districts of the north and hile Parliament 

recruited its forces in the towns and seaports of the 

an counties, but the leaders on both sic _ 
taken from the nobles and gentry. At first there 
was a lack of good generals. The command of the The leaders, 
royal for : bo Prince Rupert, the kir \ 

nephew, and son of the exiled Count Palatine. He 
was a handsome, headstrong young fellow of twenty- 
three, fit only to lead a cavalry charge, and he g 
Charles much trouble. Parliament's general was the 
Earl of Esse r.o owed his place to his rank rather 
than to his ability-. Neither side had a uniform, but 
the Cavaliers wore gay plumes and - and an 

orange scarf was the distinguishing badge of the 
soberly clad Parliamentarian 

don placed th at Parliament's disposal, wars of rats- 

and Henrietta Maria hurried over to Holland, taking ** g "' 
with her the crown jewels on which to borrow m: 
for the king. On both sides many sacrifices r:r 
made, the rich sending the family plate to be me 
into bullion, while poor women brought thim~: 
ear-rings, even their wedding-rings. Short supplies 

g : od by plundering ; Parliament's sole 
carried off the Communion plate, while Prince 
Rupert's lawk ging von him the title of u Prince 

The Early Years of the War. — The first importer:: mi -: 
battle was fought at Edgehill in the autumn of 1642. 
as claimed a victory. Rupert's horse put 



282 The Rule of the Stuarts 

the Roundhead cavalry to flight, but over the plunder 
they forgot that the battle was not yet won, and when 
they returned to the field they found the rest of the 
king's army retreating before the Parliamentary foot. 
This battle was a fair example of many others, but 
on the whole, success was at first with Charles rather 
than with Parliament, 
cromweirs The reason for this was well put to Hampden 

opinion of 

parliament's by his cousin, Oliver Cromwell, " Your troops are 

forces 

most of them old decayed servingmen and tapsters 
and such kind of fellows, and their troops are gentle- 
men's sons and persons of quality. Do you think 
that the spirits of such base and mean fellows will 
ever be able to encounter gentlemen that have honour, 
courage, and resolution in them ? You must have 
men animated by a spirit which will lead them as far 
as gentlemen would go, otherwise I am sure you will 
always be beaten." Hampden doubted that anything 
could be done, but Cromwell answered, " I can do 
something towards it, and I will do it. I will levy 
men who have the fear of God before their eyes, and 
will bring some conscience to what they do, and I 
promise you they shall not be beaten." So he went 
through the eastern counties, where Puritanism was 
strong, and before long he had brought together a 
body of stern, religious men fired with zeal for their 
cause. Cromwell was an ideal cavalry leader and 
a great general as well, and before long he and his 
"lovely troop," as he called it, were a power on the 
side of Parliament. 



HOLY ISLE 



- EXGLAXD 
AND WALES 

THE CIVILWARS 
OF THE 17TH CENTURY t 

SCALE OF ENGLISH MILES 
510 20 30 6.1 



Parts held by Charles 
at the end of 1643 
Parts held by Parliament I I 




The Great Rebellion 285 

Both sides were anxious for reinforcements. Parliament 
Charles turned to the Irish, and Parliament struck a Jhe&oTch," 
bargain with the Scotch leaders whereby the Presbyte- l643- 
rian system was set up in England, in return for the aid 
of a force of ten thousand Scots. The conclusion of 
this treaty was John Pym's last work. Worn out with Death of 

. . , . . , . , . , . . . _ Hampden and 

labor and anxiety, he died without seeing the end of of Pym. 
the struggle which he had begun. The noble-minded 
Hampden had already passed away, having received 
a mortal wound in a skirmish at Chalgrove Field. 
His last words were, " O Lord, save my country ! O 
Lord, be merciful — " 

Marston Moor. — But a greater man than Pym or MacDonaid, 
Hampden had now come to the front, and the fortune andsT.^ 
of war was turning to the side of Parliament. In the Mlc ' 
summer of 1644 an important battle was fought at 
Marston Moor in Yorkshire. Prince Rupert, in com- 
mand of Royalist forces numbering twenty thou- 
sand, was opposed to an allied Scotch and English 
army of about the same size. Cromwell was present 
in command of the horse. Already his prowess was 
known, and before the battle began Rupert, eager 
to meet a foeman worthy of his steel, asked anxiously 
of a straggler, " But is Cromwell there ? " 

As the two armies faced each other, a violent 
storm broke over the open moor. The Royalists 
advanced with the cry " God and the King ! " the 
answering shout of the Roundheads was " God with 
us ! " Cromwell's horse charged upon the royal 
dragoons, " scattering them like a little dust," as he 



284 



The Ride of the Stuarts 



Ironsides. 



wrote the next day to Parliament, then turned back to 
help the sore-pressed Scots. Before nightfall the 
field was won, but the chase was kept up by moon- 
light almost to the walls of York. It was Cromwell's 
deeds at Marston that won him from Rupert the 
admiring nickname of Ironside, a title later applied 
to his men. 

The Independents and the End of the War. — There 
were now two parties in Parliament, the Presbyterians, 
who thought their system the only right one and who 
had no more idea than Laud of letting people wor- 
ship as they chose, and the Independents, those 
who favored separate congregations but were tol- 
erant of other opinions than their own. Cromwell 
held with the Independents, and he maintained that 
so long as a man feared God, and fought well, his 
creed mattered little. After Marston Moor the 
Independents were supreme in Parliament, and little 
by little the Roundhead forces were reorganized on 
the plan of the Ironsides. The " New-Model," as 
the reformed army was called, was the most remark- 
able army the world has ever seen, for it was com- 
posed of men equally good at fighting and at praying, 
and who did not know what it was to be beaten. 

With the New-Model, Cromwell won the great 
battle of Naseby in 1645, which decided the fate of 
the war, although the struggle continued for a few 
scott, Legend months longer. As had so often happened before, 
it was Rupert's recklessness that lost the day. 
When Charles saw that the battle was turning 



The Indepen 
dents. 



Remodelling 
the army. 



Nasehy, 1645 
Macaulay, 

Naseby. 



of Montrose. 



The Great Rebellion 285 

against him, he placed himself at the head of his 

bodyguard for a last desperate charge. " Will you 

go to your death ? " cried his friends, and they drew 

him from the field. For a few months he wandered Charles sur- 

aimlessly about attended by a few followers, and scotch. 

then gave himself up to the Scots. 

Plotting. — The king's only hope was that the victors 
would fall to quarrelling among themselves, and this 
they soon did, for there was little sympathy between Marryat, The 

J J xr j Children of 

the Independent army and the Presbyterian Parlia- the New 

Forest. 

ment, nor did Scot and Englishman work well 
together. Charles did his best to stir up trouble, 
pretending to come to terms now with one party, 
and now with another, but never acting in good 
faith, for even yet he hoped to get the better of his 
foes. The Scots handed him over to Parliament, and 
at length he came into the keeping of the army, who 
offered him very liberal terms, but these he refused 
to accept, for his efforts to set his opponents by the 
ears were now crowned with success. The alliance 
of the Scotch leaders had been gained through a Alliance 

1 t 1 -n i • T - 1 1 between 

promise to establish Presbytenanism in England, chariesand 
and a Scotch army marched over the Border, this 
time in support .of the king. A general rising of 
the Royalists followed. But Cromwell won a great 
victory over the allied army at Preston, and the out- Preston, 1648, 
break at once collapsed. This sealed the fate of 
Charles, for the army had vowed that if it were vic- 
torious, it would bring the king, "that man of 
blood," to justice. 



286 



The Rule of the Stuarts 




A, the King 

B, the Lord President, Bradshaw 

-i^' \?r n c- 1S C " Bradshaw's Assistants 
D, Wm. Say \ 



_ _,. n .. \ The Arms of the 

G, Oliver Cromwell / ~ , . 

r , TI ,. > Commonwealth 

H, Henry Marten \ . 

' J ) over them 



I, Coke 



E, Andrew Broughton \ Clerks of the K, Dorislaus \ Commonwealth 

F, John Phelps ) Court L, Aske 



Counsellors for the 



Trial of Charles I. 



The Great Rebellion 287 

The Execution of the King. — The first step was to 
get control of Parliament. One morning when the 
Commons assembled they found the doors of the 
House guarded by soldiers in command of Colonel Pride's 
Pride, who turned back 143 of the members most urg ' 
hostile to the army. The remnant, nicknamed in 
derision "the Rump," at once called Charles to 
account for his past deeds. The trial took place in 
Westminster Hall, where eight years before Strafford 
had stood at bay. The king was condemned to die as 
a " tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy." 
Great efforts were made to save him. The Dutch Trial of the 
ambassadors pleaded for his life, and Prince Charles, 
in exile in France, sent a blank paper signed and 
sealed, offering to bind himself by any conditions 
the judges might impose, if only his father's life 
might be spared ; but all was in vain. 

Charles met his fate with dignity and fortitude. 
The night before the execution, two of his children, 
the only ones in England, were brought to him. 
His farewell to the queen he intrusted to Princess Death of the 
Elizabeth. Then he took little Prince Henry on his 
knee, and spoke a few solemn words of warning. 
" Sweetheart," he said, " they will cut off thy 
father's head." Having thus caught the boy's 
attention, he added slowly, " Mark, child, what I say, 
they will cut off my head, and perhaps make thee a 
king ; but mark what I say, you must not be a king 
so long as your brother Charles and James do live." 
Thus he hoped to forestall any schemes of the army 



288 The Rule of the Stuarts 

for making a tool of the little fellow. The scaffold 
had been built against the front wall of Whitehall. 
Here in the presence of a large multitude Charles 
went to his death with the words, " I go from a cor- 
ruptible to an incorruptible crown which nothing can 
disturb." As the axe fell, a great shudder ran 
through the crowd, there was a shriek, and then all 
England immediately dispersed. A few days later the Rump 
republic. voted to abolish monarchy and the House of Lords. 
Henceforth England was to be governed by the 
chosen representatives of the people. 



Section 7. The Puritan Republic 

The Conquest of Ireland. — In form, England was 
now a republic, but the real ruler was Cromwell sup- 
ported by the army. His task was a difficult one. 
The majority of the people had no liking for the 
new order ; they wanted a king, and they did not 
want toleration in religion. Any attempt at rebellion 
was likely to receive support from without, for France 
had recognized Prince Charles as king, Scotland was 
preparing to follow suit, and in Ireland the war was 
renewed. 

The Irish situation was the most pressing, and 
thither Cromwell first turned his attention, leaving 
the Rump to look after matters in England. Strife 
and lawlessness had prevailed in the unhappy island 
since the outbreak in 1641. Cromwell made up 
his mind that there was no safety for England until 



The Puritan Republic 289 

the Irish had been thoroughly subdued. In his cromweiiin 
fierce zeal he showed no mercy. Drogheda was 
carried by storm, and a general massacre of the in- 
habitants followed. At Wexford there was another 
slaughter. The English swept like a scourge from 
end to end of the country, and when at last peace 
was established, it was estimated that nearly one-half 
of the population had perished. Of those that sur- 
vived, some found safety on the Continent, but many 
were transported to Barbadoes, to wear out their 
lives in forced labor under a tropical sun. All the TneCrom- 

wellian 

best of the land was taken from the natives and settlement, 
given to Cromwell's soldiers and supporters. Ire- 
land has never forgotten its treatment by the Puritan 
army, and to this day " the curse of Cromwell be on 
ye " is the Irishman's strongest imprecation. 

War with Scotland. — Before the Irish were wholly 
subdued, Cromwell was called home. Prince Charles 
had crossed over to Scotland, where on his agreeing 
to support Presbyterianism, the people rallied about 
him. If he were once master in the northern king- 
dom, his first step would be to lead a Scotch army 
into England. So Cromwell tried to forestall this 
by invading Scotland. At Dunbar he found himself 
in great straits, hemmed in between two Scotch forces. 
But success did not desert him. In the early morn- Dunbar, 165a 
ing of September 3, before the Scotch lines were 
formed, Cromwell led a charge against them with the 
cry, " Let God arise ; let his enemies be scattered." 
His victory was complete. 



290 The Rule of the Stuarts 

There was still a large Scotch force on foot, and 

the war continued some time longer. In the next 

summer the enemy succeeded in invading England 

and pushed southward, but Cromwell followed close 

behind, and on September 3, the anniversary of Dun- 

worcester, bar, the two forces met at Worcester. The Scotch 
1651. 

army was entirely destroyed, Prince Charles, who 

was on the field, escaping only with difficulty. For 
several weeks he wandered through the south of 
England in disguise. Faithful friends conveyed him 
from place to place until at length he was able to 
cross over to France. He had, however, several 
narrow escapes. On one occasion, concealed in the 
thick leafage of an oak, he watched his pursuers 
ride below. Cromwell called his victory at Worcester 
"a crowning mercy," and he spoke truly, for never 
again was he forced to draw the sword in England. 

The Government of England. — Cromwell could now 
turn his attention to England where things were 
going badly. The Rump seemed more concerned 
with prolonging its power than with settling the 
affairs of the country. This made it very unpopular 
with the soldiers, most of whom were farmers and 
traders, eager to return to their homes so soon as 
their liberties were secured. Cromwell looked on in 
silence for a time, but at length he made up his mind 
to put an end to the Rump's dawdling. One morn- 
ing he appeared in his place in the Commons. For 
a little while he sat quietly listening to the debate, 
but at last he started up impatiently. " Come, come ! " 



Tlic Puritan Republic 



291 



he cried, " we have had enough of this. I will put 
an end to this. It is not fit you should sit here any 
Jonger." Calling in his soldiers, he cleared the hall. 
Then he locked the doors and put the key in his 
pocket. That night some wag nailed a placard on 



Overthrow of 
the Rump, 
1653. 




The Seal of the Commonwealth. 

the door with the words, " This House to let, unfur- 
nished." Thus ended the famous Long Parliament, 
which had sat since 1641. 

Few were sorry to see the Rump depart. " We did 
not hear a dog bark at their going," said Cromwell 
years afterward. The difficulty was what to put in its 
place. Various ways of governing with a Parliament 
were tried, but all ended in failure. The real power 
throughout belonged to Cromwell, who was given 
the title of Protector. Many thought he was plotting cromweii 
to make himself king, and he certainly assumed a protector. 



292 



The Rule of the Stuarts 



good deal of royal state toward the last. But the 
truth seems to be that he was bent on securing the 
religious and political liberties for which he and his 
soldiers had fought, and he knew that if the people 
had their own way and set up such a Parliament as 
they wished, that would be the end of the Puritan 
Republic. 

The Wars of the Republic. — In spite of these 
troubles at home Cromwell made England respected 
and feared abroad as Charles had never done. Two 
wars fell within this period, — one with England's 
former ally, Holland, the other with the old enemy, 
Spain. In both cases the questions at stake had to 
do with colonies and commerce, and this shows the 
growing importance of these matters. Holland and 
England were united in religion, but divided by 
rivalry in commerce, and commercial interests got 
the upper hand. In 1650 the Dutch, who were great 
traders, controlled the sea. Englishmen did not like 
this, so they passed the Navigation Act, a famous 
measure shutting out Dutch ships from English 
ports. At the same time the navy was greatly 
Robinson and strengthened. As a result war broke out. The 
the Honor of fighting was on the sea, not on the land. Both sides 
ag ' had good commanders. At one time the Dutch were 
successful, and their great admiral, Van Tromp, 
sailed up and down the Channel with a broom 
fastened to the masthead, signifying that thus he 
would sweep the English from the sea. A little 
later, however, Robert Blake, England's greatest 



Dutch and 

English 

rivalry. 



The Naviga 
tion Act, 
1651. 



The Puritan Republic 293 

admiral before Nelson, won two victories, which put 
an end to the war. 

At first France was hostile to the Republic, but she 
soon came to feel that it would be well to be on good 




Oliver Cromwell. 



terms with a man like Cromwell, able and deter- 
mined and in control of a good navy and of the best 



294 



The Rule of the Stuarts 



War with 
Spain and 
the capture 
of Jamaica. 



army in the world. So France abandoned the cause 
of the Stuarts, and entered into an alliance with 
England against Spain. In the war that followed 
the English navy did good service, capturing Jamaica 
and breaking down the Spanish monopoly of the 
trade with the West Indies. 

The Death of Cromwell. — For several years Crom- 
well was king in all but name. His rule was not 




r^m 



Puritans destroying the Cross at Cheapside. 



popular ; it was the army only that upheld him. 
Nevertheless he was a great man and his aims were 
generous and noble. Taxation was heavy, but good 
order was maintained, and little by little the ravages 
of the war were disappearing. Cromwell was toler- 
Barr, Friend ant beyond his time. To the Quakers, a new sect, he 
showed much kindness, and he allowed the Jews, for 



Character of 
Cromwell's 
rule. 



Olivia, 



The Puritan Republic 295 

three hundred and fifty years excluded from England, 
to return. There was little interference with Episco- 
palians until it became plain that they were plotting 
against the Republic. To the Catholics alone no 
mercy was shown. 

But Cromwell's work was done. Grief at the loss 
of his favorite daughter, Elizabeth, the burden and 
anxiety of his position, broke him down, and he 
passed away on the night of September 3, 1658, 
the anniversary of Dunbar and Worcester. A ter- 
rific storm swept over England as he lay dying. His 
enemies said that the devil was coming to fetch his 
own, but the last prayer of the great Puritan was for 
friends and foes alike. " Teach those who look too 
much on Thy instruments, to depend more on Thy- 
self. Pardon such as desire to trample upon the 
dust of a poor worm, for they are Thy people too. 
And pardon the folly of this short prayer ; even for 
Jesus Christ's sake. And give us a good night, if it 
be Thy pleasure. Amen." 

Fall of the Puritan Republic. — Cromwell appointed 
his eldest son as his successor, and Richard was 
formally recognized as Lord Protector, but he never 
actually ruled. He was honest and well-meaning, Richard 
but he lacked wholly his father's earnestness and 
force of character, and at the end of a few months 
he was glad to abdicate and withdraw to his home 
in the country. Power was now in the hands of the 
army, which set up and pulled down one Parliament 
and then another. Finally General Monk, who was 



Stuarts, 1660. 



296 The Rule of the Stuarts 

in command in Scotland, determined to put an end 
to this disorder. Accordingly he led his soldiers to 
London, declaring he had come to secure a free 
Recall of the Parliament. When this Parliament met, it at once 
invited Prince Charles, an exile in Holland, to return 
to his kingdom. The nation, weary of Puritan 
severity and hating military rule, rejoiced at the turn 
of affairs, while the army, powerless without leaders, 
watched in sullen silence the undoing of its work. 

Books for Study 

Gardiner, S. R., The Puritan Revolution. 
Firth, Cromwell. 
Traill, Strafford. 

Suggestive Questions 

Section i. — State the Stuart claim to the English crown. 
Over what matters did the king and Parliament quarrel ? 

Section 2. — Give the causes for Buckingham's unpopularity. 
Recall some earlier instance of forced loans. 

Section 3. — Describe Laud's dealings with the Puritans. 
What were Hampden's reasons for refusing to pay ship money ? 

Section 4. — Why was Parliament so afraid of Strafford ? 
Over what questions did the Commons disagree ? 

Section 5. — How did the nation divide in the Civil War ? 
Why were the Royalists at first more successful than the Parlia- 
mentarians ? Describe the Independents. 

Section 6. — Give the reason for the war between the Dutch 
and the English. What were Cromwell's aims ? Why did 
England recall the Stuarts ? 

Special Topics 

Sir John Eliot : Green. Short History. 

The trial of Strafford : Gardiner, 115-11S; Kendall, Source 
Book, 76, jj. 

The death of Montrose : Morris. Montrose. 



CHAPTER XII 

RESTORATION AND REVOLUTION 

Here lies our sovereign lord the king, 

Whose word no man relies on ; 
Who never said a foolish thing, 

And never did a wise one. 

— Epitapli on Charles //. written while 

the king was still alive by one of his courtiers* 

For govern'd by the moon, the giddy Jews 
Tread the same track when she the prime renews 
And once in twenty years their scribes record, 
By natural instinct they change their lord. 

— DRYDEN, Absalom and Achitophcl. 

Section i. Under the Merry Monarch 

The Return of the Exile. — England went mad Charles n, 
. . . , . , . ^, . . 1660-1685. 

with joy at having again a king. The royal journey 

from Dover to London was a continuous triumphant 
procession. So general indeed was the rejoicing that 
Charles remarked with his wonted keenness," It must 
have been my own fault that I did not come before, 
for I find no one but declares he is glad to see me." 
The young king had been brought up in a hard character ot 
school. For years he had been a wanderer, some- 
times actually suffering from want. One lesson he 
had learned thoroughly, and that was the dreariness 

297 



298 Restoration and Revolution 

of exile. Come what might, he declared, he would 
never again go on his travels. Nor did he, for, 
shrewder than his father, he knew when it was neces- 
sary to yield. But the truth was, he cared for noth- 
ing so much as his own pleasures. He was witty and 
graceful, fond of women and dogs; but religion, coun- 
try, friends, all meant very little to him. 

The Royalist Reaction. — The first thing to be done 

was to get rid of the Ironsides. Dazed and helpless, 

they made no objection at being sent back to their 

homes, and thus Cromwell's splendid army came to 

Attack upon an end. Many of the Puritan leaders were seized and 

the Puritan . . T ... . . , 

leaders. thrown into prison. It was not possible to get hold 

of all those who sat in the court which condemned 
Charles to death ; some were dead and others had fled 
to the Continent or to America, but ten of the regicides 
were taken and executed. After a time the king said, 
" I am weary of hanging," and put a stop to further 
executions. Charles was less revengeful than his 
subjects, for popular feeling ran high, venting itself 
on the dead as well as on the living. Cromwell's 
body was removed from Westminster Abbey to a pit 
at the foot of Tyburn Hill, where common criminals 
were buried, and the skull was set up on a pike before 
Westminster Hall. 

The horrors of the Civil War had taken such a hold 
upon Englishmen, that the majority now went so far 
as to declare that all rebellion was wrong. No matter 
what the king did, they said, no one ought to resist 
him. In 1661 a new Parliament met which was nick- 



Under the Merry Monarch 299 

named the Cavalier Parliament because of its ardent 
royalism, and one of its first acts was to pass a law The doctrine 
requiring all persons holding office to swear that it ance. n reS1S 
was not lawful under any pretence to take up arms 
against the king. 

Parliament and the Puritans. — Puritanism and 
rebellion, army rule and long sermons, were min- 
gled together in popular detestation. It was not 
likely therefore that the Nonconformists, or, as they 
came to be called, the Dissenters, would receive tender 
treatment from the Cavalier Parliament. A law was Act of 
speedily passed requiring all clergymen to accept the 
prayer-book. Many conformed, but about two thou- 
sand of the most earnest and learned men in the Church 
were turned out of their parishes. Persecution fol- 
lowed them in retirement, for they were forbidden to 
preach in private houses or to teach school. There 
were more Puritans in the towns than in the country, 
and this made especially spiteful the law called the 
Five-mile Act, prohibiting the " silenced ministers" Five-mile 

Act. 

from coming within five miles of a town. All pub- 
lic religious meetings of Dissenters were forbidden. 
Family worship was allowed, but if more than five conventicle 

Act. 

persons outside the household were present, all were 
punished by fine or imprisonment, or even by trans- 
portation. Much suffering among the Puritans fol- 
lowed. Many were thrown into prison, and among 
these was a poor day-laborer, named John Bunyan. 
He was convicted of preaching, and of having "dev- 
ilishly and perniciously abstained from coming to 



3oo 



Restoration and Revolution 





' v - 




wSfe-* ' 


KS| 




':.,* 


<Q ^nt 




?L •' 


fjK. 


fir M&m 




fcfc ' -S^kE 


ell - tf.-f* 


El 1 ^tvKE 






m 




^ 


£» 



Three of the Children of Charles I. 



Charles, later Charles II. 

Mary, afterward married to the Prince of Orange. 

James, later James II. 



Under the Merry Monarch 3 QI 

church," so for eleven years he lay in Bedford jail, 
and there he thought out that wonderful allegory 
known as Pilgrim s Progress. 

The Plague in London. — In the summer of 1665 
there was a terrible outbreak of the plague in Lon- 
don, the result of the filthy conditions that pre- 
vailed. The court removed to Oxford, and every 
one who could left town, but the sufferings of the 
thousands who could not get away were frightful. Defoe, 
Each infected house was shut up and marked with a tkYpiagLe. 
red cross on the door, and the words, " Lord have 
mercy upon us." At night a dead-cart went the 
rounds with torches and bell. The cry was raised, 
" Bring out your dead." Without discrimination all 
corpses were thrown into the cart, and borne away to 
a great common grave. It was like an awful night- 
mare over the city. Some persons went mad with 
fear and ran through the streets, crying that the Day 
of Judgment had come. Others in despair gave 
themselves up to feasting and riot. 

The magistrates did their duty nobly, and many of 
the physicians died at their posts. Some of the 
clergy, however, fled in fright, leaving their places to 
be filled by the ejected Puritan ministers, who strove 
to give what comfort they could to the miserable 
people. To its everlasting disgrace the Cavalier Par- 
liament, safe in Oxford, took this occasion to pass 
the Five-mile Act already referred to. Danger from 
the plague ceased only with the approach of winter. 
When it was at its height, as many as ten thousand 



302 



Restoration and Revolution 



died in one week, and the total number of deaths 
is estimated at one hundred thousand. 

The Great Fire. — London had not seen the end 
of its troubles. The summer following the plague 
season was hot and dry, and water became very 
scarce. In the night of the 2d of September a fire 
broke out in a bakehouse near Pudding Lane. A 




The Great Fjre of London. 



Activity of 
the king. 



strong wind was raging and the flames were soon 
beyond control. The Lord Mayor was urged to 
blow up a row of houses to check the spread of the 
fire, but he had lost his head, and all he did was to 
wring his hands and cry, " Lord ! What shall I do ? 
Lord ! What shall I do ?" Charles here showed his 
best side. Hurrying from one point of danger to 
another, he devised means to save the most precious 



Under the Merry Monarch 303 

buildings, organizing the soldiers into fire brigades, 
and blowing up whole streets of houses. It was 
through his energy alone that the Tower and White- 
hall and Westminster Abbey were saved. At the 
end of three days the fire was under control, stopping 
its course at a place called Pie Corner. Many beau- 
tiful buildings, including old St. Paul's, had been 
destroyed, and four hundred streets had been swept 
away. 

At this time if anything went wrong it was always Accusation 
laid at the door of the Catholics, so many believed that catholics, 
the fire was their work. Accordingly a monument 
set up in Pudding Lane in commemoration of the fire 
bore an inscription charging it to the Catholics. 
After a time people realized how false this was, as 
the poet Pope shows in his lines, — 

"Where London's column pointing to the skies 
Like a tall bully lifts its head and lies," 

and in the nineteenth century the inscription was 
erased. The fire was scarcely out, before plans were 
formed for rebuilding the city. Sir Christopher Wren, 
a famous architect, had charge of the work. His 
great monument is St. Paul's, and there he lies buried. 
War with the Dutch. — England and Holland were 
still rivals on the sea, and in 1664 war broke out. 
Much hard fighting followed, but neither side could 
claim the victory. The English seized the Dutch conquest of 
colony of New Amsterdam, and renamed it New colonies^ 
York after the king's brother, the Duke of York, and America - 



304 



Restoration and Revolution 



lord admiral of the fleet. The next year the duke 
and Prince Rupert defeated the Dutch off Lowestoft 
on the Suffolk coast. But in a great three-days en- 
gagement in the following January De Ruyter, the 



*% 



«:§ 




The Dutch Fleet in the Medway. 
The burning of Sheerness. 



Dutch admiral, won a victory over Monk, who was 
fitter to command on land than on sea. At this time 
Charles was at his wits' end to get money for his 
costly pleasures, and, hastily concluding that peace 
was at hand, he thought to save expense by disman- 
tling the fleet. Taking advantage of this, De Ruyter 



The French Alliance 305 

appeared in the Thames, broke the boom which The Dutch in 

1 1 1 t 1 1 n it i i i 1 the Thames. 

blocked the entrance to the Medway, burned several 
ships off Sheerness, and carried away the Royal 
Charles, the pride of the fleet. For days the Thames 
was blockaded so that London could get no coal. 
There was a panic among the citizens, and it was 
openly said that these things would not have hap- 
pened had Cromwell been alive. But both English 
and Dutch wr re coming to feel that their strength 
was needed against a more dangerous foe, France, 
and in 1667 a peace was agreed upon by which Eng- 
land was left in possession of the Dutch colonies in 
North America, but was excluded from the spice 
trade of the East. 



Section 2. The French Alliance 

The Treaty of Dover (1670). — As time went on, 
many besides the Puritans were coming to feel that 
Charles and his court were a disgrace to England. 
Even the loyalty of the Cavalier Parliament began 
to cool toward a king who squandered in unworthy 
dissipation vast sums of money which ought to have 
been spent in strengthening the national defences. 
As Charles did not like to have his pleasures inter- 
fered with, he was anxious to get rid of Parliament. 
This was not his only reason. Although he never Charles leans 
allowed religion to hinder him in anything he wished ° ° me ' 
to do, yet he had a secret attachment to the Church 
of Rome, and he was anxious to do something to 



306 



Restoration and Revolution 



Treaty of 
Dover, 1670. 



Attack upon 
the Dutch. 



make the lot of the English Catholics a little easier 
He knew, however, that Parliament would be very 
unlikely to agree to any measure of relief for them. 

At this time the king of France was Louis XIV, a 
very powerful and ambitious ruler, and a zealous 
Catholic. Louis and Charles were cousins, and while 
in exile, Charles had often received aid from his 
kinsman. The two kings now made a treaty. It 
was a very disgraceful affair, and for a time it was 
kept secret. By the Treaty of Dover, as it was 
called, Charles agreed to aid Louis in an unprin- 
cipled plan for conquering Holland. Also as soon 
as it seemed safe, he was to avow himself a Catholic, 
at the same time giving toleration to all of that faith 
in England. In return he was to receive from Louis 
a yearly pension which would make him independent 
of Parliament, and the loan of six thousand French 
troops to use against his own subjects if he saw fit. 

Charles attempts to fulfil the Treaty. — The king 
proceeded at once to carry out his part of the French 
treaty. Although war had not been declared, the 
English attacked the Dutch merchant fleet from 
the East in the Channel, but were beaten off. At 
the same time Louis invaded Holland with a large 
army. But the allied kings met with stubborn resist- 
ance. The young Prince of Orange, Charles's own 
nephew, was captain general of the Dutch forces. 
Like his heroic ancestor, William the Silent, he was 
ready to drown the land to save it from the invader. 
A messenger came to him from his uncle. " Do you 



The French Alliance 307 

not see," said the Englishman, " that the Republic is 
lost?" "No," answered Orange, "and I know one 
sure means of never seeing it — to die on the last 
dyke." 

At first Charles did not dare to declare himself a 
Catholic, but in the hope of doing something for his 
fellow-religionists, he issued a Declaration of Indul- Declaration 
gence, granting liberty to all faiths. This meant g ence, 1672. 
relief to the Dissenters as well as to the Catholics. 
Not that Charles cared for the Dissenters, but he 
thought in this way to cloak his designs. But Par- 
liament quickly took the alarm, and its loyalty gave 
way before its dread of a Catholic restoration. It 
declared the king had no power to issue the Indul- 
gence, and refused to give him any money until he 
had withdrawn it. Charles had no mind to push 
matters to extremes. So he gave way and did what 
was asked. Not content with this, Parliament passed 
the Test Act, excluding all Nonconformists, Catholic Test Act, 
and Protestant alike, from government offices. The 
Duke of York was an avowed adherent of the Church 
of Rome, and even he was forced to give up his 
place as lord admiral. 

Determined " not to go on his travels again," 
Charles yielded to Parliament's wish for peace with 
Holland, even going so far as to marry his niece Marriage of 
and heiress, Princess Mary, to the young Prince of p^ceot tb 
Orange. The Duke of York was much opposed to 0range - 
this match for his daughter, and Mary herself was a 
very unwilling bride, but she soon came to love her 
husband with devotion. 



308 



Restoration and Revolution 



Titus Oates. 
Scott, 

Peveril of 
the Peak. 



Attack upon 
the Catholics. 



The Exclu- 
sion Bill, 
1680. 

Dryden, 

Absalom and 
Achitophel. 

Tories and 
Whigs. 



The Popish Plot and the Exclusion Bill. —Just 
about this time all England was thrown into a dis- 
graceful panic by the reported discovery of a horrible 
conspiracy. Titus Oates, a lying scoundrel, declared 
that the Catholics had formed a plot to murder the 
king and to put the Duke of York in his place. 
The story grew rapidly, and it was soon asserted 
that the Catholics were planning a massacre of all 
the Protestants. Oates's tale was absolutely false, 
but people had not forgotten the Gunpowder Plot, 
and they still believed that the London Fire was the 
work of the Catholics, so there were at first few who 
doubted the reality of the Popish Plot, as it was 
called. Oates soon grew so bold that he named 
many prominent persons as concerned in the con- 
spiracy. Judges and juries were ready to believe all 
that he said, he was hailed as the preserver of the Prot- 
estant religion, and his supporters kept him in luxury 
while he swore away the lives of innocent Catholics. 
At length the panic subsided, and then men began 
to realize the foul wrong that had been done. 

While the craze was still at its height an effort was 
made to exclude the Duke of York as a Catholic 
from the succession to the throne, and an Exclusion 
Bill was introduced into Parliament. Charles de- 
fended his brother with unusual feeling, and Parlia- 
ment and the country divided over the question. 
Those who opposed the bill were nicknamed Tories, 
a word of Irish origin signifying robbers. What 
was meant by this was that the duke's friends were 



The French Alliance 309 

nothing but Irish thieves. The supporters of the 
bill received the name of Whig, a west Scotland 
word used in driving horses. The implication here 
was that those who were attacking the duke's right 
to the crown were no better than Scotch rebels. 
In time these terms came to be the names borne by 
two great political parties for a century and a half. 
As for the attempt to deprive York of the crown, it 
failed, chiefly because Englishmen were still more 
afraid of civil strife than of anything else. 

Death of Charles. — The last few years of the reign 
were peaceful. The violence of the Whigs in the 
contest over the Exclusion Bill led to a revival of 
Royalist feeling, and Charles was too shrewd or too 
selfish to bring up the Catholic question again. By 
keeping on good terms with Louis he got all the 
money he needed without calling Parliament. Death 
came upon the king suddenly in the midst of his 
pleasures. When it was known that his illness would 
end fatally, the Duke of York came to his bedside, 
and asked him if he wished to be reconciled with the 
Church of Rome. " Yes," was the king's answer, 
" with all my heart." Bishops and courtiers were Charles 
bidden to leave the room, and a priest was brought, self a Roman 
who received the king's confession and granted 
absolution. Charles lingered yet a few days. The 
wit and tact which had carried him through diffi- 
culties that might have cost a better man his crown, 
never forsook him. Tortured with pain, he could yet 
beg the pardon of his attendants for being so long in 
dying. 



Catholic. 



310 Restoration and Revolution 

Section 3. The Overthrow of the Stuarts 

The Last Stuart King (1685-1688). — Catholic 
though he was, James ascended the throne without 
opposition. The new king was quite unlike his 
brother, more honest and conscientious, but obstinate 
to blindness, and lacking entirely the tact and charm 
of manner which won Charles so many friends. To 
conciliate his subjects James announced that he 
intended to uphold the established Church, but he 
did not hesitate to display his loyalty to his own 
faith, and for the first time in one hundred and 
twenty-seven years mass was performed at West- 
minster with the ancient pomp and state. On this 
occasion the Duke of Norfolk who was attending 
upon the king stopped short at the chapel door. 
"Your lordship's father would have gone farther," 
said James. " Your Majesty's father would not have 
gone so far," was the duke's reply. 

Monmouth's Rebellion. — Although there was no 
resistance to James's accession, yet there were many 
who believed it a bad thing to have a Catholic rule over 
England. The Duke of Monmouth, an illegitimate 
son of Charles II, thought to get himself made king 
by taking advantage of this feeling. Monmouth was 
in Holland when his father died, but his plans were 
quickly made. One beautiful June evening he landed 
ivionmouth in on the Dorset coast with a few followers. A procla- 
mation was issued charging James with responsibility 
for the London Fire and the Popish Plot. Monmouth 



the West. 



The Overthrow of the Stuarts 3 1 1 

followed this up by announcing himself as the right- 
ful ruler of England, and declaring that he had come 
to defend the Protestant faith from Popish attacks. Besant, For 
Although the nobles and squires held aloof, the Freedom. 
townspeople and peasants nocked to the duke's Doyie,j/*v«A 
standard. At Taunton he was formally welcomed 
by the mayor and corporation, and sixty young girls Biackmore, 
dressed in white strewed flowers before him, and Doone. 
presented him with a copy of the Bible. 

At first Monmouth met with no resistance, but 
soon some two thousand regulars were in hot pur- 
suit. The duke knew that his raw recruits, many 
of them armed only with scythes and axes, could not 
make a stand against trained soldiers. He planned, 
therefore, to take the royal force unawares as it lay 
encamped one night on Sedgemoor, a dreary marshy sedgemoor, 
plain cut up by ditches. But his men became 
entangled in a ditch of which they had not known, 
the surprise failed, and although the poor rustics 
fought stoutly, they were defeated and cut down by 
hundreds. This was the last real battle fought on 
English soil. 

Monmouth escaped from Sedgemoor and took 
refuge in the New Forest. The pursuit was close, 
and after two days he was found hiding in the long 
grass of a ditch disguised as a peasant. Having 
been brought to London, he obtained an interview 
with his uncle, the king. James said of this meeting 
afterwards, "The Duke of Monmouth seemed more 
concerned and desirous to live, and did not behave 



312 Restoration and Revolution 

Execution of himself as I expected from one who had taken him- 
self to be king." Monmouth's abject entreaties for 
life, nothing but life, availed him nothing, and he 
was sent to the block without delay. 

The Bloody Assizes. — Monmouth deserved his 
fate, but no one can deny sympathy to his poor mis- 
guided followers. Many of them were hanged by 
the soldiers without the pretence of a trial, others 
were thrown into prison. James showed himself 

judge merciless. He appointed a judge named Jeffreys, 

noted for his brutality, to try these unfortunates. 
The court sessions which this man held in the 
western counties are known in history as the Bloody 
Assizes. 

Jeffreys and his colleagues passed rapidly from 
town to town, their course marked by bloodshed. 
Much of the time Jeffreys was half drunk, and he 
amused himself in reviling and insulting the men and 
women he condemned to death. If a prisoner 
attempted to defend himself, he was roared down. 
Did a jury seem inclined to be merciful, this infamous 
judge stormed at them until they were frightened 
into doing what he said. At Winchester an aged 
lady named Alice Lisle was condemned to be burnt 
alive because she had sheltered two of Monmouth's 
followers, not knowing who they were, and it was 
with difficulty that the king was induced to commute 
the sentence to beheading. Twenty-six of the poor 
girls who had shared in Monmouth's welcome at 
Taunton were thrown into prison, and only by pay- 



The Overthrow of the Stuarts 3 ! 3 

ing heavy fines could their friends procure their 
release. In all, three hundred and twenty persons 
perished. Most of these were in Somersetshire, where 
on every church tower ghastly heads grinned at the 
passer-by. Besides those put to death more than 
eight hundred were transported to the West Indies to 
work and die under the broiling tropical sun. In 
addition an indefinite number were flogged or im- 
prisoned or fined. It is a satisfaction to know that 
when Jeffreys returned triumphant to London, his 
father forbade him the house. Tames, however, who Jeffreys made 

lord-chan- 

had followed carefully day by day the doings of his ceiior. 
creature, rewarded him with the office of lord- 
chancellor. 

The King's Efforts to relieve the Catholics. — Mon- 
mouth's failure convinced the king that nothing 
could shake the loyalty of the people. Therefore he 
now proceeded more boldly. On the pretext of fear 
of rebellion the army was increased and Catholics 
were put in command. Even high offices in the 
Anglican Church were filled with known adherents 
of the Church of Rome. 

James felt so safe that at length he ventured to 
issue a Declaration of Indulgence similar to that Declaration 
which Parliament had forced Charles to withdraw. ge nce, 1687. 
By this all men, Dissenters as well as Roman Catho- 
lics, were free to worship as they pleased, and to 
hold office without taking any kind of test. The 
behavior of the Dissenters at this time was very 
remarkable. They felt that the king had no right 



314 



Restoration and Revolution 



The affair of 

Magdalen 

College. 



Petition of 
the seven 
bishops. 



to set aside the laws, and, although a few of them 
signed an address thanking James for his act, the 
most of them stood aloof, unwilling to purchase relief 
in this way. 

Even now there were no signs of rebellion, and 
the king took a bolder step. The presidency of 
Magdalen College at Oxford becoming vacant, he 
ordered the Fellows to elect one Farmer, a man of 
bad character and a Roman Catholic. But the 
Fellows, acting within their rights, chose another. 
Thereupon James turned them out of doors to find 
food and shelter where they might. They were, 
however, in little danger of want, for the country was 
much stirred up over the doings of the king. 

Trial of the Seven Bishops. — Murmurs of discon- 
tent grew louder, although there was still no open 
resistance. Loyalty to the king, dread of civil strife, 
held men in check. But James seemed bent on 
goading his subjects into rebellion, and he reissued 
the Declaration of Indulgence, ordering the clergy 
to read it on a certain Sunday from their pulpits. 
They were in sore straits, thus forced to choose 
between obedience to the king and obedience to 
Parliament. After some deliberation the Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury and six of the bishops peti- 
tioned the king to be excused from doing as he 
commanded. At this James was exceedingly angry 
and had them committed to the Tower, declaring 
that their very respectful petition was untruthful and 
bound to stir up rebellion. When the appointed Sun- 



The Overthrow of the Stuarts 3 1 5 

day came, but few clergymen obeyed the king's 
Drder. Where they did, the congregation in some 
:ases rose and left the church when the reading 
began. 

Popular feeling ran high. One of the imprisoned 
bishops, Trelawney of Bristol, was a native of Corn- 
wall, and throughout the west the refrain was now 

beard : — 

" And shall Trelawney die, boys ? 
And shall Trelawney die ? 
Here's twenty thousand Cornishmen 
Will know the reason why." 

On the day when the bishops were brought before 
the judges at Westminster Hall, anxious crowds filled 
the streets. At seven o'clock in the evening the 
jury withdrew to deliberate, nine being for the 
bishops and three for the king. Two of the latter 
soon yielded, but one, the king's brewer, held out. 
" Whatever I do," he said, " I am sure to be half 
ruined. If I say not guilty, I shall brew no more for 
the king, and if I say guilty, I shall brew no more 
for anybody else." But by morning the brewer had 
given way. When a verdict of not guilty was de- Acquittal of 

J „ the bishops. 

clared, the rafters of Westminster Hall rang with 
shouts of joy which were echoed back from the 
streets. Even James's soldiers, encamped outside 
the city, rejoiced with the rest. 

The Invitation to the Prince of Orange. — One rea- 
son for the patience of the nation under its trials was 
the hope which was entertained that at the king's 



3i6 



Restoration and Revolution 



Birth of a 
prince. 



Letter to the 
Prince of 
Orange. 



death things would change, since the heir to the 
throne was James's eldest daughter, the Princess of 
Orange and a stanch Protestant. But while the 
bishops were still in the Tower an event occurred 
which altered the whole situation. A son, known 
in after years as the Pretender, was born to the 
king. Poor little boy, there was no national rejoic- 
ing over his birth, for he now took Mary's place as 
next in succession, and he was sure to be brought 
up a Roman Catholic. Many Englishmen in their 
dismay at this dashing of their hopes denied that 
he was a real prince at all, and asserted that the 
child of a poor woman was being palmed off upon 
the country as its future king. It is known now 
that this was false, but at the time many believed 
the tale. 

A few leading Whigs felt that something must 
be done at once, and on the day that the bishops 
were set free Admiral Herbert, disguised as a com- 
mon sailor, started for Holland. He carried to the 
Prince of Orange a cipher letter signed by seven 
prominent persons. This momentous document de- 
scribed the recent unlawful acts of the king, declared 
that the nation desired a change, and ended by beg- 
ging the prince to come over to defend his wife's 
rights. 

The Flight of King James. — After careful con- 
sideration William accepted the invitation of the 
English leaders, and began> to make his preparations 
for invading England. Louis of France got wind 



The Overthrow of the Stuarts 317 

of what was proposed and sent a warning to James. 
But the king in his blindness would not believe that 
his daughter's husband and his own nephew could 
intend anything against him. Nor did he realize 
that he had alienated even the most loyal of his 
subjects. So he did nothing to defend himself. 

Unfavorable weather delayed the coming of the 
prince, but finally he appeared in the Channel borne coming of 
onward by a " Protestant wind," as the people said. range ' 
He landed at Torbay with a considerable force of 
well-trained soldiers and issued a proclamation 
declaring he had come to maintain " the liberties of 
England and the Protestant religion." Nowhere did 
he meet with resistance as he advanced slowly 
inland. 

At the court all was confusion. The royal army 
was encamped on Hounslow Heath, outside London, 
and it included many Irish who remained loyal, but 
James seemed powerless to use it. He did not know 
whom to trust. Like rats abandoning a sinking Desertion of 
ship, his followers deserted him. One of the first ' e kmg * 
to go over to William was his favorite, Lord Church- 
ill, lieutenant general of the forces. His own son- 
in-law, George of Denmark, after supping with him 
one evening slipped away in the night to William's 
camp. James heard this news unmoved. " I only 
mind him as connected with my dearest child. 
Otherwise the loss of a stout trooper would have 
been greater." A few days later his " dearest child " 
also deserted him. Accompanied by Lady Church- 



318 Restoration and Revolution 

ill, she left the palace at night by a private stair. 
It was raining, and Anne lost a shoe in the mud ; 
but, giggling with excitement, she succeeded finally 
in getting away from London escorted by the Bishop 
of London disguised in military dress and jack-boots. 
When the word of Anne's flight was brought to 
James, he exclaimed piteously, "God help me! My 
own children are deserting me." 

James, remembering his father's fate, sought now 

to escape. Once he reached the coast, but was 

recognized and brought back. William, however, 

anxious to avoid bloodshed, desired nothing so much 

as the king's flight, and left all ways of escape open. 

Flight of James lingered helplessly for a few days, sitting over 

cember23 e ," the fire and murmuring, " God help me! whom can 

1688. j trust ? " Then he slipped away unhindered and 

crossed over to France. 

Section 4. Colonial and Commercial Expansion 
in the Seventeenth Century 

The American Colonies. — During these years of 
political and religious strife in England the colonies 
on the other side of the Atlantic, almost unaffected 
by the troubles of the Mother Country, were steadily 
gaining in population and wealth. In the time of the 
Civil War the government concerned itself but little 
with affairs in America although the development of 
England's navy and the successful attacks upon 
Spanish monopoly of the sea secured the position of 
the colonies. Charles II, however, interested himself 



Colonial and Commercial Expansion 319 

deeply in colonization, and no part of his career is so 
much to his credit as this. 

Virginia, grown rich and populous through the 
influx of several thousand Royalists after the Civil 
War, was now flanked on the south by the Carolinas 
founded in 1664 by a group of proprietors, among 
whom was the Earl of Clarendon. In 1667 the Dutch 
Colonies on the Hudson passed finally under English 
rule, and the last break in the line of English settle- 
ments bordering the Atlantic was filled in 1682 with 
the founding of Pennsylvania by William Penn, the 
Quaker, and the ill-assorted friend of James II. 

Commercial Interests. — Throughout the century 
the East India Company slowly expanded its trade. 
The long contest with the Dutch for the Spice Islands 
ended with the treaty of 1667, by which England in 
return for the Hudson River colonies gave up all 
claim to the eastern isles. Henceforth the company 
confined its operations to the Indian peninsula, where, 
by the end of the century, it had established factories 
or trading posts at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta. 
These were the small beginnings of England's great 
eastern empire of to-day. 

In 1670 a trading company known as the Hudson 
Bay Company was incorporated in London. Among 
those concerned in the enterprise were the king, the 
Duke of York, and Prince Rupert. During the next 
two hundred years the company exercised sovereign 
power over the upper part of North America and it 
still controls the fur trade of British Columbia. 



320 Restoration and Revolution 

The Royal Navy. — England's rulers were not slow 
to realize the importance of a strong navy to protect 
the political and commercial interests of the nation, 
and from the time of the Commonwealth much was 
done to further naval development. One purpose of 
the Navigation Act was to train up a school of 
seamen from which to man the royal ships. Charles 
II did not hesitate to cripple the fleet by appropri- 
ating naval funds to his own pleasures, but his brother 
James both before and after he came to the throne 
was untiring in his efforts to strengthen the navy and 
improve its discipline, and this though driven from 
his office of Lord High Admiral by the Test Act of 
1673. It was a sore wound to his feelings that the 
service, which was strongly Whig and Protestant, sup- 
ported almost to a man the revolution of 1688. By 
the close of the century England's navy had distanced 
all rivals and had secured the command of the sea. 

Books for Study 

Pepys, Diary and Correspondence. 
Macaulay, History of England. 
Hale, Fall of the Stuarts. 

Suggestive Questions 

Section i. — What kind of a man was Charles II? Describe 
the treatment of the Dissenters after the Restoration. 

Section 2. — Why did Charles make an alliance with Louis ? 
Define Whig and Tory. 

Section 3. — What did James do for the Catholics ? 

Special Topics 

The London Fire : Pepys, Diary and Correspojidence. 
Trial of the Seven Bishops : Macaulay, History of England. 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE CONTEST FOR EMPIRE 

War, war is still the cry, " War even to the knife !" 

— Byron, Childe Harold, Canto I, St. 86. 

The Great Commoner was the first Englishman of his time, 
and he made' England the first country in the world. 

— Macaulay, Essay on William Pitt. 

Section i. The New Order 

Revolution by Act of Parliament. — Soon after the wmiam 
flight of James a Parliament met which declared that and Mary 
the throne had become vacant through the king's (l6 9_I 94 ' 
withdrawal from the country. After some discus- 
sion the crown was offered to William and Mary. 
At the same time Parliament drew up an important 
document worthy to stand with the Charter and the 
Petition of Right. This document, which is known 
as the Bill of Rights, set forth the misdeeds of James, 
and declared that William and Mary in accepting the Bin of Rights 
crown promised never to interfere with the liberties Toleration, 
of their subjects, nor to attempt to rule without 
Parliament. A little later the Toleration Act was 
passed giving Dissenters the right to worship as they 
chose. This was their reward for having refused so 
stoutly to make terms with James. 

The War in Ireland. — The mass of the Irish 
people were Catholics. James II was the only king 
who had tried to relieve them, and they now sup- 

321 



322 



The Contest for Empire 



James in 
Ireland. 



Siege of 
Londonderry. 



Battle of the 
Boyne, 1691. 



Treaty of 
Limerick . 



ported him when he came over to Ireland with a small 
French army. The Protestants in the country fared 
badly ; some were killed and others took refuge in the 
two or three towns that declared for William. 

Siege was laid to Londonderry, where hundreds of 
Protestants had assembled. At first the Irish 
attempted to carry the place by storm, but failing in 
this they sat down to reduce it by famine. On the 
land side James's forces surrounded the town, and 
approach by sea was barred by a strong boom of 
timber thrown from bank to bank and protected by 
forts at both ends. The siege lasted for ten weeks. 
From the cathedral tower the English fleet sent by 
William could be seen outside, but for a time it did 
not dare try to break the boom. Food became very 
scarce, even dogs and horses were eaten, and it was 
only after half the heroic inhabitants had died of 
hunger that an English ship dashing against the 
boom broke it, thus bringing relief to Londonderry. 

William himself now came over and won a great 
victory at the Boyne. Although suffering from a 
wound, he led his soldiers in battle, but James fled 
from the field as soon as he saw that the tide was 
turning against him. The Irish, who had made a 
brave stand, said in anger to the victors, " Change 
kings with us and we will fight the battle over again." 
After this James gave up the struggle and retreated 
to France. In 1691 the war was brought to a close 
by the Treaty of Limerick. Toleration was promised 
the Catholics, but to England's enduring shame the 



The New Order 323 

promise was not kept. The Irish soldiers were given 
permission to choose between the English and foreign 
service. Ten thousand abandoned their native land 
and went abroad to form the famous Irish brigades 
in the armies of France and Spain. 

For the next fifty years Ireland was quiet with the 
quietness of despair. The Catholics were held down 
under the oppressive rule of the Protestant minority 
backed by England's power. At the same time every 
feeble attempt to develop new industries such as the 
woollen manufacture or dairy farming, was stamped 
out by the Parliament at Westminster urged on by 
English landowners and manufacturers who feared 
Ireland's rivalry. 

The Resistance of the Highlands. — The Scotch 
Lowlanders took William's side, but the poor people 
of the Highlands held loyally to James; so an English 
army was sent against them. The two forces met 
one hot summer's day at the top of the Pass of 
Killiecrankie. The English, hampered by their Battle of 

Killie- 

bayonets, a new weapon at that time, were put to crankie. 
flight by the Highlanders. This was, however, their 
only success. A little later a law was passed re- 
quiring all the Highland chiefs before a certain day 
to take an oath to live peaceably. At the appointed 
time all had sworn save one, Mac Ian of Glencoe, a 
desolate valley in the western Highlands. Mac Ian 
was an old man, head of a small clan. He meant to 
take the oath, but thought to show his independence 
by putting it off till the last moment. Unluckily for 



324 



The Contest for Empire 



him he then went to the wrong place to swear, and 
when he reached the right officer, the appointed day 
was past. 

Lord Stair, who was in command in Scotland, 
thought it well to make an example of Mac Ian and 




Glencoe. 



his clan, and he obtained William's permission to 
"extirpate that set of thieves." On some pretext a 
troop of soldiers was quartered in Glencoe. They 
lived with the people, sharing their sports and win- 
scott, on the ning their confidence. Then early one morning when 
it was still dark they surrounded the huts where they 
had made merry the night before, and shot down the 
inmates as they came out one by one. Many of the 



Massacre of 

Glencoe, 

1692. 



Massacre of 
Glencoe, 



The New Order 325 

clansmen were killed, old and young, while others 
escaped to the hills only to perish in the snow. 

The Beginning of the War with France. — It was 
very needful to stamp out rebellion in Ireland and 
Scotland, for England was now engaged in a great 
war with France. In the sixteenth century Europe 
lived in dread of the Spanish power, but in the next 
century France under Louis XIV became an even 
greater danger to the independence of the neighbor- 
ing states. Louis was bent on making France the The French 

1 it \ i • 1 • 1 • power, 

greatest power in the world, and during his long reign 

of over fifty years Europe had little peace or security. 
The conquest of Holland was a part of the French 
king's plans, and he was untiring in his efforts to 
break down the resistance of the sturdy little state. Louis attacks 
William had spent the best years of his life in oppos- 
ing France, and his chief reason for accepting the 
English crown was to break off the alliance between 
Louis and the Stuart kings. He had his reward 
when in 1689 England joined with Holland and Ger- 
many in a great attempt to check the advance of the 
French. 

Many Englishmen opposed this action. They de- 
clared that William had dragged England into a war 
in which she had no concern, that he was sacrificing 
the country to Dutch interests ; and the English colo- 
nists in America, who soon found themselves fighting 
their French neighbors in Canada, called it King 
William's War, as though it concerned him alone. 
This was taking a very wrong and narrow view of the 



326 



The Contest for Empire 



Rivalry of 
England and 
France. 



La Hogue. 



Treaty of 
Ryswick. 



Death of 
Queen Mary. 



matter. England had a deep interest in the contest 
against France, for the two countries were really 
rivals, not in Europe to be sure, but in the West. 
If Louis had triumphed over the allies on the Con- 
tinent, his next step would have been to wrest the 
New World from English control, for he aimed to 
make France not merely the first continental state, 
but a great colonial power as well. 

The war continued for eight years. The French 
won all the land battles, but on the sea the English 
were generally successful. In 1692, under the com- 
mand of Admiral Russell, they gained a great victory 
at La Hogue. Three years later William succeeded 
in capturing the fortress of Namur. For fifty-two 
years the French had never lost a fortified town. 
Now their triumphant career was checked. In 1697 
the war closed with the Treaty of Ryswick. Nothing 
was settled, however, for France was not really 
beaten. 

The Jacobites. — Affairs in England at this time 
were in a very unsatisfactory state. So long as the 
queen lived, William had in her a very devoted coun- 
sellor. Forced to choose between her husband and 
her father, she had never faltered in her whole- 
hearted loyalty to William. But she died of small- 
pox in 1694, leaving the king alone among the sordid, 
unpatriotic men who controlled English affairs. At 
the time of the Revolution no one had struck a blow 
for the king, but it was soon plain that there were 
many Jacobites, as those who supported James came 



The New Order 327 

to be called. Some of them were honest men, who 
had felt that something ought to be done to save 
Protestantism, but who were not ready to give up 
their allegiance to James. Others, however, were intrigues 
simply disappointed office-seekers. Among these W1 ames 
were England's best general, Churchill, who was 
not satisfied with having been made Earl of Marlbor- 
ough, and the leading admiral, William Russell, who 
was angry over some personal slight. Both secretly 
offered their aid to the exile in France. Russell, 
however, limited his offer. " Do not think," he said 
to James's agent, " that I will let the French triumph 
over us in our own sea. Understand this, that if I 
meet them I fight them ; ay, although his Majesty 
himself should be on board," and at La Hogue he 
kept his word. In spite of the intrigues of these 
leaders, the people as a whole were determined not to 
have a Catholic king, and in 1701 Parliament passed 
the Act of Settlement, according to which after the Act of 

Settlement. 

death of William and Anne the crown was to go to 
the nearest Protestant heir, the aged Electress of 
Hanover, who was a granddaughter of James I and 
daughter of the hapless Elizabeth of the Palatinate. 

Renewal of the French War. — William knew that 
peace could not long be kept, and, as he expected, 
trouble soon broke out. The king of Spain was 
dying, he had no children, and Louis, who had mar- The Spanish 

• t i.-iir-.i r r succession. 

ned his sister, claimed the Spanish crown for one of 
his own descendants. William had no mind to see a 
son or grandson of the French king ruling over the 



328 



The Contest for Empire 



great Spanish realm, and made ready to resist this 
plan. Louis was anxious to avoid war, and he there- 
fore made a formal agreement to withdraw his claim. 
But when in 1700 the king of Spain died, it was found 
that he had willed all his possessions to the French 





- ----_ -___. --- v-r^.";:-.- ■>>:-"■ ^>."=--.*^ 



Hampton Court Palace. 

Built for William III, by Sir Christopher Wren. 



king's grandson, Philip of Anjou. Louis at once 
accepted the inheritance for his kinsman, refusing to 
hold to his agreement with William. The latter was 
eager to try conclusions with the French king, but 
Parliament was anxious to keep out of war and would 
not support him. At the critical moment, however, 



The Last Stuart 



329 



news came which changed the course of English feel- 
ing. James II died in exile in France, and Louis Recognition 
immediately recognized the dead man's son, the little tender by 
prince of the Revolution, as king of England. The 
English people were very angry at the French king's 
insolence in assuming to say who should reign over 
them, and Parliament now voted readily money and 
soldiers for war with France. 

Death overtook William just as he was about to Death of 
start for the Continent. While he was riding in 
Hampton Court Park, his horse stumbled over a 
mole-hill. He was thrown and survived his injuries 
but a few days. Some of the Jacobites rejoiced at 
his death and drank to the health of " the little gen- 
tleman in black velvet " whose work had done the 
mischief. Even among the Whigs there was little 
mourning. Nevertheless, he was one of the best of 
England's kings. He was merciful and high-minded, 
and he ruled according to the law, respecting the 
rights of Parliament and the liberties of the people. 

Section 2. The Last Stuart 

Queen Anne and her Rulers. — England's new sov- 
ereign was an Englishwoman, a Stuart, and a bigoted 
supporter of the established Church. Thus we may 
account for her popularity with her subjects, most of 
whom saw little of her. In reality, she was a dull, Anne, 1702- 
uninteresting, sickly woman. When very young she 
was married to Prince George of Denmark. Of him 



330 



The Contest for Empire 



Charles II said, "I have tried Prince George sober, 
and I have tried him drunk, and drunk or sober there 
is nothing in him." The pair had had many children, 
but none were alive at this time. The queen was 




John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough. 



The 
Churchills. 



devotedly attached to her friend Sarah Churchill, the 
Countess of Marlborough. It was Lady Churchill's 
influence that had induced Anne to desert her father 
and take up the cause of William of Orange, and the 
favorite's power was now so great that it was popu- 
larly said, " Queen Anne reigns but Queen Sarah 
governs." 



The Last Stuart 331 

The real ruler of England, however, was Sarah's 
husband, who was the most remarkable man of this 
time. John Churchill, like George Villiers, first won 
the royal notice by his good looks and graceful man- 
ners, but he was a man of different stuff, and he is 
known in history not as the favorite of James II, but 
as the greatest general of the eighteenth century. 
His character was full of contradictions. He was 
notoriously avaricious, even selling his honor for 
money. Trusted by James and William, he was faith- 
less to both. On the other hand he was above petty 
spite, and generous towards his enemies, while his de- 
votion to his handsome, sharp-tongued Sarah was the 
wonder of the corrupt time in which he lived. 

The War of the Spanish Succession or Queen Anne's 
War. — The death of William did not change the 
determination of the English to make war upon 
Louis. Joined with England were Holland and 
Germany. To Marlborough was given command of 
the allied forces, and his position was not an easy one; 
for there was much rivalry among the leaders, which 
called for all his tact. At first he contented himself 
with defending the Dutch Netherlands, but in 1704 
he marched up the Rhine to outflank the French in 
Bavaria. The two armies met at Blenheim on the Blenheim 
Danube, and the French were completely beaten. 
This was the first land battle that France had lost in soutney, 
sixty years. Marlborough was rewarded with a duke- 
dom, and the palace of Blenheim near Oxford, where 
his descendants still live, was built for him at public 



Capture of 
Gibraltar. 



332 



The Contest for Empire 



expense. The victory at Blenheim freed Germany 
from the French, and a second battle won by Marl- 
borough at Ramillies drove them from the Dutch 
Netherlands. In the same year with Blenheim the 
English won Gibraltar from the Spanish. While the 




Blenheim House. 



garrison of one hundred and fifty Spaniards were all 
in church, the fortress was surprised by a large force 
of English. Ever since that day England has kept 
control of this key to the Mediterranean. War was 
not confined to Europe ; in America the English colo- 



The Last Stuart 333 

nists were successfully fighting the Canadians in 
what they dubbed Queen Anne's War, as though no 
interests of their own were at stake. 

By 1 7 10 Louis was ready to sue for peace. In 
spite of Marlborough's remonstrances England in- 
sisted on humiliating conditions. Among other things 




The Rock of Gibraltar. 

it was demanded that Louis should aid the allies in 
driving Philip from Spain. This was more than the 
French king could accept. "If I must wage war," 
he said, " I would rather fight with my enemies than 
with my children," and so the contest was renewed. 



334 



The Contest for Empire 



Terms of the 
union. 



Principles 
of the two 
parties. 



The Union of England and Scotland, 1707. — While 
the French war was still going on, an important event 
in the history of England and Scotland took place. 
Ever since the day when James I ascended the Eng- 
lish throne the two countries had been ruled by the 
same sovereign, but, save for a short time under Crom- 
well, each kept its own Parliament. It was felt that 
complete union would be a gain to both, but Scotland 
was afraid of being swallowed up by England, and the 
English feared Scotch rivalry in trade. At length 
after much discussion the terms of union were agreed 
upon. Each country kept its own religion and its 
own law, but there was to be complete free trade and 
but one Parliament, the Parliament of the United 
Kingdom of Great Britain. A new flag was adopted, 
the Union Jack, formed by combining the red cross 
of St. George with the white cross of St. Andrew. 

Although for a time there was some opposition to 
the union, especially in the Highlands, the results 
have been wholly good for both countries. 

Whigs and Tories. — Party quarrels were bitter 
throughout Anne's reign. The Whigs held fast to 
the Revolution settlement, but many of the opposing 
party were anxious to make terms with the exiled 
Stuarts. Over the question of the war the two par- 
ties were sharply divided, the Whigs supporting a 
war policy, while the Tories opposed it. Another 
issue agitated the country at this time. The Whig 
party had always shown itself friendly to the Dis- 
senters. It had gained for them toleration, and it 



The Last Stuart 335 

did not object to their holding office. The Tories on 
the other hand, and probably the majority of the 
people, had no liking for Dissenters. They thought 
it was quite enough to grant liberty of worship and 
were bent on enforcing rigidly the Test Act. see p. 307 

Anne was a Tory at heart, but so long as she was 
under the influence of Marlborough she supported the 
Whigs. The duke indeed cared little for parties, but 
on the war question he and the Whigs were one. So 
for many years their influence was strong in the 
government. Finally there came a change. The 
country was growing tired of war, and even more im- 
portant than this, the queen quarrelled with the duch- 
ess, and installed in her place Mrs. Masham, whose Anew 
pleasant, ingratiating ways were a great relief after 
the overbearing temper of the other. Anne now 
showed her real feeling by getting rid of her Whig 
ministers, at once filling their places with members of 1710. 
the Tory party. 

The End of the War and the End of the Reign. — 
Now that the Tories were in power they made haste 
to conclude a peace with France. The terms they peace of 
offered were readily accepted, for the French were at utrecht ' I7I3< 
the end of their strength. Philip was left in posses- 
sion of Spain, but Louis agreed to acknowledge the 
Protestant succession in England, and to cede to the 
English vast regions in the New World, — Nova Scotia, 
Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay territory. Eng- 
land also secured from Spain the right of supplying 
the Spanish colonies with negro slaves, a trade much 



336 



The Contest for Empire 



Death of 
Anne, 1714. 



coveted for its profits, and the privilege of sending 
one merchant ship a year to Panama. Thus ended 
the first stage of the contest between the English 
and the French. England was now the greatest 
power on the sea. 

The Tories had carried their point, but it was plain 
that the queen was dying, and they were perplexed 
about the future. By law Anne's successor was 
George of Hanover, the son of the Electress who had 
recently died. The Whigs had steadily upheld his 
claim, and he in turn was certain to favor them. The 
Tory leaders objected to losing their offices, and on 
their side were the many who were Jacobites and 
desired to see a James III on the throne. Some 
wished this so much that they were ready to overlook 
the fact that the Stuart claimant was a Catholic, but 
others would support him only on condition that he 
gave up his Church. This he bravely refused to do. 
While the Tories were still vainly trying to agree on 
some plan Anne died. The Whigs acted promptly, 
and George of Hanover was proclaimed king almost 
before the country knew what was happening. 



Character of 
George I. 



Section 3. The Days of Peace 

The first Hanoverian (1714-1727). — George I was 
already fifty-four years old when he became king of 
England. He made no haste to take possession of 
the throne, in fact he had never concerned himself 
much about the great inheritance in store for him, 



The Days of Peace 337 

not even taking the trouble to learn English. His 
interests centred in the dull German court where 
he had spent his life. In character he was stolid 
and selfish but not devoid of shrewdness. In 
Hanover he had played the part of a petty despot, 
but he had the good sense to see that that was 
impossible in England ; so he troubled himself little 
with politics, satisfied with having a large income to 
spend upon his coarse pleasures. 

Rule by Cabinet. — At this time a change took 
place in the character of the government, due largely 
to George I's ignorance of English affairs. In the 
days of William and of Anne the great state officers 
had exercised much power, but the new king went 
farther and placed himself entirely in the hands of 
his ministers. He was shrewd enough to see that 
he knew too little to meddle in the government, so 
he chose some prominent statesman to manage 
matters for him. This man, who would now be 



HOUSE OF HANOVER 
George I, 1 714-1727 
George II, 1727-1760 
Frederick, Prince of Wales 

George III, 1 760-1820 

I 

George IV, 1 820-1 830 William IV, 1 830-1 837. Edward, Duke 

of Kent 

Victoria, 1837 



The Contest for Empire 



The prime 

minister. 



Return of 
Whigs to 
power. 



called prime minister, invited to office only those who 
agreed with him as to the way the country should be 
governed, and together they formed what was known 
as the Cabinet. Little by little they became so 
powerful that when George II came to the throne 
he declared, " In England the ministers are king," 
and this was not far from the truth. 

There was one thing in the situation in England 
which the first Hanoverian understood well, and 
that was that his only sure friends were the Whigs. 
Accordingly he at once turned the Tories out of 
office, placing himself entirely in the hands of their 
opponents. So long as the Tory party remained 
Jacobite the alliance of the house of Hanover with 
the opposing party was bound to continue. As the 
Tories were slow to realize that the Stuart cause 
was a lost cause, the Whigs entered now upon a 
long lease of power. 

The Jacobite Rising of 17 15. — The Tories were 
very angry at being turned out of office. This 
encouraged the Pretender and his friends to believe 
that a rising in his favor might be successful. It 
was decided to make a beginning in the north, where 
loyalty to the Scotch line was still strong. But the 
affair was mismanaged from the start, for the Jaco- 
bites seemed unable to plan wisely or to act vigor- 
ously. The Earl of Mar, the Pretender's leading 
Scotch supporter, raised the standard of rebellion 
before the others were ready. A project to surprise 
Edinburgh Castle failed, because, so it is said, some 



The Days of Peace 339 

of the storming party delayed too long in powdering 

their hair. At Preston the rebel leaders surrendered, 

although they outnumbered their opponents three to 

one. At about the same time a battle was fought at 

Sheriffmuir in which neither side gained much credit, sheriffmur 

It was well described in an old-time Scotch ballad, — 

U A battle there was. that I saw, man, 
And they ran, and we ran." 

The rising had already failed when the Pretender 
landed in Scotland. He was a shy, sad man, brave 
enough but unable to infuse much spirit in his sup- 
porters. For a few weeks he lingered about, and 
then stole secretly back to France. The chief result 
of the rebellion was to confirm King George in his 
belief that the Tories were not to be trusted. 

The Rule of Walpole. — For almost twenty years 
after this Sir Robert Walpole, the leader of the 
Whigs, was the real ruler of England. The king 
trusted him absolutely, the other ministers relied 
upon his leadership, and Parliament was a puppet in 
his hands. Walpole was the son of a Norfolk squire, 
with the manners and morals of his time, which meant 
that he was hard-drinking, coarse, and unscrupulous. 
But he had ability and tact and good sense, and he 
did his best for the welfare of England. During 
the last eighty years the country had passed through 
two revolutions and a great civil war, and Walpole waipoies 
thought that peace was what was most needed. He 
was determined to keep out of war, nor would he do 
anything which was likely to stir up trouble at home, 



340 The Contest for Empire 

refusing on this account to urge some reforms in 
which he believed. " Let sleeping dogs lie " was the 
motto of his government. 

Walpole was sure of the king, but he knew that he 
must also secure the support of Parliament. He did 
this in a very simple way, by buying votes, sometimes 
with money, sometimes with offices and titles. It was 
all done quite unblushingly. Perhaps a doubtful mem- 
ber was invited to dinner and underneath his plate would 
be placed a check or a banknote. Over the terms of 
the bargain there was sometimes much haggling. 

The People and the House of Commons. — Parlia- 
ment was very powerful, but it did not represent the 
people. There was no way of calling to account the 
members who accepted bribes, for it was not easy to 
know what was passing in the Parliament. News- 
papers were not allowed to publish the speeches and 
debates, nor might they say how any member voted. 
Buying of But the chief difficulty lay in the fact that the man 
seats. who sold his vote to Walpole had very likely bought 

his seat, either by bribing the voters or by paying a 
large sum of money to some great landlord who con- 
trolled the district. Many voters could be bribed, and 
seats were often bought and sold like any kind of 
property. 

In the eighteenth century there were not many 
The state of people in England who had the right to vote, and 
often these few knew or cared so little about politics 
that they were glad to sell their votes for a few shil- 
lings and plenty of beer. Then some towns had the 



The Days of Peace 341 

right to send members to Parliament and some had 
not, and quite often it was a little hamlet with a 
handful of inhabitants that had this right, while the 
large towns were without it. For example, there was 
a small place in Wiltshire called Old Sarum with but 
one house which had two representatives in the 
House of Commons, while the populous town of 
Birmingham sent none. The reason for this absurd 
state of things was that there had been no change 
for a long time in the law which said what towns were 
to send members to Parliament, and in the meantime 
some places had decayed while others had grown pop- 
ulous. The "rotten boroughs" as they were called The "rotten 
were generally in the hands of some great landlord 
of the district. If he were interested in politics he 
put in his own friends, otherwise he sold the right 
of representing the place in Parliament to any one 
who could pay the large sum he asked. Probably 
more than half the members of the House of Com- 
mons had bought their seats outright or had bribed 
the voters individually. Most of them were anxious 
to get some return for the money they had spent, 
and, accordingly, they sold their votes to Walpole or 
to some other minister. 

George the Second (1 727-1 760). — After "reigning 
but not ruling " for thirteen years, George I died and 
was succeeded by his son. The second George was 
of German birth, and very much like his father, 
although less able. There had been no good will 
lost between him and Walpole, and many people 



.42 



The Contest for Empire 



Walpole still 
in power. 



State of 
morals. 



The begin- 
ning of 
Methodism. 



thought that the great minister's rule was at an end. 
Fortunately for the country, the king was guided in 
most things by his wife, a very able and tactful 
woman. She was shrewd enough to see that the 
royal interests as well as England's we're best off in 
Walpole's hands, so she persuaded her husband to 
keep him in power. Until her death a few years 
later, Caroline and Walpole worked together, she 
managing the king, and he governing the country. 

The Methodists. — The England of early Hano- 
verian times had little likeness to Cromwell's Eng- 
land. Men no longer persecuted those who did not 
agree with them in religion, but they had also ceased 
to care much for any religion. Where a century 
before all were reading the Bible, now there was 
many a parish without a copy of the Scriptures out- 
side the church. The clergy shared the indifference 
of their parishioners, and the fox-hunting parson was 
a prominent figure of the time. Hard drinking was 
common among high and low. The people had 
abandoned beer for a new drink, gin, and in London 
streets the gin-shops displayed signs inviting the 
passers-by to get drunk for a penny, and dead drunk 
for twopence. It was indeed a coarse, brutal age. 

A few years after George II came to the throne a 
little group of Oxford students began to attract the 
jeers of their fellows by their piety and earnestness. 
A certain methodical way of living gained them the 
nickname of Methodists, and in time this came to be 
the title borne by a great religious body. These 



The Days of Peace 



343 



young men were filled with a desire to do something 
to relieve the sin and degradation which they saw 
everywhere. Like the friars of the thirteenth cen- 
tury, they made up their minds not to wait for the 
people to come to them, but sought them out in their 
houses and haunts. They preached on the open 
moor, on the 
village green, 
in Cornish 
coal-pits, on a 
street-corner, 
wherever, in 
fact, they 
could gain a 
hearing. They 
preached as 
the friars had 
preached, 
from the 
heart, and in 
words that all 
could under- 
stand. 

The real 
leader and 
founder of the 

movement which began at Oxford was John Wesley, 
a very scholarly man and an ordained clergyman of 
the established Church. His brother, Charles Wesley, 
was the singer of Methodism, and it was his beautiful 



Charles, 
Diary of 
Mrs. Kttt) 
Trevelyan 




John Wesley. 



: The 

hymns which gave to the English \ eir love 

of hymn singing The orator and preacher of the 
movement was Whitetield, and his burning eloqi. c 
could draw money from the miser a: :rom the 

brutal collier. These men and their foil - .\rted 

rk which li- iritan movement of the sev- 

enteenth centur :. imped a lasting mark on 

A. 
The Anglican Church frowned upon the zeal of the 
ind much against his will Wes 
: r d to found an independent Church, and to-day 
the V as : Methodists are numbered by mill- 

In spite . : their hostility- the Anglicans felt 
the effect of the movement, and from this time on 
showed themselves more alive to their duties. Morals 
generally began to improve and people displayed in- 
creasins: interest in the condition of their fellow-men. 



■r 



Rh ewajl of trz French 



The War of Jenkins' Ear. — For quite twenty 
s England had peace This was a longer 
respite from fighting than the country had known 
for more than a century. The generation now grow- 
ing up hardly knew what war meant, and this had 
perhaps something to do with popular readine 
quarrel with Spain over a matter that now came up. 

In those days people did not believe in allowing 
colonies to trade with any countrv save the mother 
country. Spain especially had done her best to 



Reneival of the French 11 

foreign traders out of her : in the I 

World, but by the Peace of Utrecht she had agreed 

to allow the English to send one trading ship yes 

to the Spanish colonies in South America. The 

English did not keep to this limit, but smuggled in &mugghzg 

many ship loads of goods. The Spanish were 

angry at this, and when they succeeded in capturing 

an English smuggler, they sometimes punished him 

cruelly. 

In the spring of 1738 a certain Captain Jenkins captain 
appeared in London and displayed one of : 
which he produced from a box. He declared that 
the Spaniards had torn it off, and had bidden him to 
earn- it to his king with their compliment- It is not 
certain that the story was true, but at the time it 
aroused much feeling, and people and Parliament 
:d that England should go to war with Spain. 
Walpole did not think this just or ne; and 

held back as long as he could, but finally he g 
way before the popular clamor. When war was wa; 
declared, the people in their joy rang the church bells. 
"They are ringing the bells r. said Walpole, 

"they will be wringing their hands soon." He 
right, for the struggle that now began did not end 
for twenty-five years. 

The Fall of Walpole. — England was not very suc- 

11I in the war with Spain. Some blamed Walpole 

for this, and he was now quite unpopular. Queen Caro- 

s death had deprived him of a good friend, and 

he could no longer hold his own agai. 



346 The Contest for Empire 

among whom were Tories, discontented Whigs, and a 
small group called the Boy Patriots who disliked his 
corrupt methods. When Walpole saw that he could 
no longer control the House of Commons, he felt that 
the time had come to resign, and in 1742 his ministry 
Results of came to an end. He had given the country the 

Walpole 's ° J 

rule. peace and repose that it needed, and England was 

richer and stronger for his rule; but public morals 
had never been so low as at this time. 

After Walpole's fall England was governed for 
several years by the Pelham brothers. The younger, 
Henry, was a fair man of business, the elder, the 
Duke of Newcastle, was dull and ignorant, but he 
was very successful in buying votes. He was a 
fussy, bustling person and the wits said of him that 
he seemed to have lost half an hour every morning, 
and to be running about all day trying to find it. 

The War of the Austrian Succession or King George's 
War. — About the time of Walpole's fall a great war 
broke out on the Continent. France had a part in it 
and England was soon involved. In Europe the con- 
test bore the name of the War of the Austrian Succes- 
sion, while the English in America dubbed it King 
George's War. But so far as England was concerned 
neither name signified much, for Englishmen cared 
little about the Austrian Succession and King George 
had no more at stake than had his subjects. There 
were no real English interests on the Continent 
to be endangered, nor was there any thought of 
invading the British Isles, but England and France 



Renewal of the French War 347 

were keener rivals than ever, and if a quarrel broke 
out anywhere they were sure to take a hand, and on 
opposite sides. It was the mastery of the sea, in the 
New World and in the East, that was at stake, and 
the Continental war had its invariable accompani- 
ment of fighting between the French and the English 
all over the world. In America the colonists of the war in 
two powers contended vigorously, and the English inindia. 
had the best of it, for the New Englanders succeeded 
in capturing Louisburg in Cape Breton Island. This 
was the strongest fortress in the New World, and 
they were very proud of their feat. In India also there 
was fighting. At the end of the seventeenth century 
a French company had succeeded in gaining a foot- 
hold in the peninsula, and threatened to oust the East 
India Company. Strife between the rivals began 
while the parent states were still at peace. On that 
side of the globe the French were successful. After 
a time the war ended in a treaty which was no more Treaty of Air 

, r . . iii- la-Chapelle, 

than a truce, for nothing was settled and it was cer- i 74 8. 
tain that fighting would soon begin again. By the 
treaty the two countries agreed to restore the con- 
quests they had made. This meant that Louisburg 
was given up, which vexed the English colonists 
greatly. 

"Forty-five." — While the fighting was still going 
on, a Jacobite rising occurred. This was just what 
Walpole had feared, for he knew that a war between 
France and England was the chance of the Stuarts. 
For many years the Jacobites had made no move, for 



348 The Contest for Empwe 

James III, as the head of the Stuarts was styled by 
his supporters, was timid and slow. He was still 
alive, but leadership had passed into the hands of his 




The Young Pretender. 
The Young son Charles Edward. The Young Pretender, as he 

Pretender. 

is commonly called, was an active, high-spirited young 
fellow, and he felt that now was the time to strike a 
blow for his crown. 



// 'aztriey 



Pans, 1745 



Renewal of the French War 349 

With but seven followers Prince Charles landed 
on the coast of Invernesshire, and summoned the 
Highland clans to his support. His coming was 
unexpected, but in a short time he had collected a 
large force, with which he marched upon Edinburgh. 
Little resistance was offered anywhere, and he was scott 
able to seize the city. He proclaimed his father 
king at the market cross, and established his court 
at Holyrood. The best of the English army was 
on the Continent, and the officers in command at 
home were old and sluggish, but at length a force 
was sent against Charles. The two armies met at 
Preston Pans near Edinburgh. Sir John Pope, the Preston 
English general, made the mistake of despising 
the prince's followers because they were undisci- 
plined. The Highlanders fought as at Killiecrankie, 
rushing upon the enemy with their broadswords, 
and they speedily won a complete victory. 

Charles now felt emboldened to invade England v 
and with an army of five thousand clansmen he 
crossed the Border. His only hope of success lay 
in a rising of the people, but there was no rallying 
to his standard. The English had no love for the 
house of Hanover, but they knew they were better 
off than in the days of the Stuarts. Nevertheless, they 
were too indifferent to offer any resistance, and the 
Pretender marched as far south as Derby, only one 
hundred and thirty miles from London. The word 
of his coming went before him, and King George 
was in a great fright, and had his valuables packed 



[7460 



350 The Contest for Empire 

and sent on board ship ready for flight. But troops! 
had been recalled from the Continent, and the 
Pretender's chief officers saw that there was 
cuiioden, nothing left but retreat. Unwillingly he turned 
northwards, an English army at his heels. At 
Cuiioden the last stand was made. Here, on April 
26, 1746, the Duke of Cumberland, King George's 
brother, totally defeated the clans. His brutal 
treatment of the wounded and prisoners won him 
the enduring nickname of Butcher Cumberland. 
Some of the Jacobite leaders were seized and sent 
to London, where they were beheaded. This was 
the last time the block and axe were used in 
England. Prince Charles escaped, to wander for 
months a fugitive in the Western Highlands. A 
price of ,£30,000 was placed on his head, but not 
one of the poor clansmen could be induced to betray 
him. At length, after many narrow escapes, he 
succeeded in reaching the Continent. Thus ended 
the last Jacobite rising. The Young Pretender spent 
the remainder of his life in exile. In the aimlessness 
and degradation of his closing years, he dwelt with 
pathetic pleasure upon this one manly episode of his 
youth. 

Section 5. The Final Grapple with France 

The French and English in India. — After 1748 
England and France were supposed to be at peace, 
and there was indeed no fighting in Europe, but 
outside Europe the two nations were at open war. 



The Final Grapple witJi France 



351 



In India the French were steadily gaining ground. 
Their governor, Dupleix, showed much skill in his Dupieix. 
dealings with the natives, and in one way or an- 




80 Longitude East from Greenwich 



ENGRAVED Br BOFMAY 



other he gained such influence that he became in 
truth master of Southern India. There was great 
alarm among the English over the rapid advance of 



TJu " f - 






A : : : : : - 3 : . 



Frti:'z ;-: 
i^ish in 
Africa. 



the French, which thev seemed unable to check 
Fortunately there appeared at this time., among the 
Company's clerks at Madr: is ong man named 

:rt Clive, who had come out from England to 
seek his fortune. He was of the stuff of which 
generals and statesmen are formed, and the chance 
soon came for him to show what he could do. When 
the French threatened Madras he was sent at his 
own request to seize Arc •:■:. the capital of the Car- 
natic, whose ruler was an ally of Dupleix. The 
English c aly got possession of the city, but soon 
found themselves besieged in turn by a large army 
of French and natives. Clive and his little : 
held out, although they were almost starved. The 
Sepoys, or hired native soldiers, showed their 
devotion to their young leader by giving to the 
English the only provisions left, a little rice, con- 
tenting then sc ss with the water in which the 
rice had been boiled. After a time the French 
1 forced to raise the siege. Clive's brave 
defence of Arcot turned the tide in favor of Eng- 
land, for many of the natives who had stood aloof, 
thinking the English could not fight, now came to 
their aid. 

On the other side of the world, matters did not 
progress so well. A keen struggle was going on 
between the French and English colonists of North 
America for control of the Mississippi Valley. The 
boundarv between the settlements of the two nations 
not clearlv marked, and while the English were 



The Final Grapple with Fn 

trying to push westward from Pennsylvania and 
Virginia, the French were trying to hem them in 
-:ablishing a cordon of posts between the Great 
Lakes and the French colony at the mouth of the 
i. If they had succeeded in their project, 
the English would have been confined to a narrow 
strip on the coast with no chance anding into 

the interior. The French colonists, all told, numbered 
onlv one hundred and eighty- thousand, as against 
a million and a half English, but : re hardy and 

warlike and on good terms with the Indians. T. 
were frequent collisions on the frontier, in which the 
French generally had the best of it. Finally, in i ~ 5 5 
General Braddock. with a combined force of Brit- 
ish regulars and colonists, attempted to seize Fort 
Duquesne. a French fort at the head of the Ohio. 
Like manv of the English gene at this time he Braddocks 

was brave but unintelligent. Disregarding the warn- 
1 the Americans, who understood frontier war- 
fare far better than he did. Braddock allowed himself 
to be led into an ambush and was killed with : si 
of his force. Among the surviv ; rs 
Washingt ang Virginian. A few years later 

his name was a household word in England and 
America. 

The Crisis and the Man. — In the spri. ig ~- 

the English and the Frer. \ e openly at war, and 

a few months later th een Av.stria and 

Pruss .enewed. In this France and England 

were ..pporter of Austria, the 



354 



The Contest for Empire 



Beginning of 
the Seven 
Years' War. 



Condition of 
the service. 



other as Prussia's ally, but so far as England was 
concerned, the continental struggle, which is known 
as the Seven Years' War, was simply the cover under 
which she fought out to a successful end her rivalry 
with France. 

Although war had been long impending, the crisis 
found the country quite unprepared. Newcastle was 
now chief minister, and he had no idea how to man- 
age a war, nor was he well supported. In those cor- 
rupt, comfortable times patriotism seemed to have 
died out. The army was in a bad way, for disci- 
pline was poor and the officers were old-fashioned 
and incapable. Even the navy, of which England had 
been so proud, was under a cloud. In 1756 Minorca 
was lost through the weakness of Admiral Byng, 
who fled without firing a gun before a French squad- 
ron but slightly superior to his own. Indeed, at the 
beginning of the war the English were so often de- 
feated that people came to think they had forgotten 
how to fight. 

There was one man, however, who thought other- 
wiiiiam Pitt. wise. This was William Pitt, who first became 
known as a " Boy Patriot " in opposition to Walpole's 
corrupt rule. Pitt had confidence in himself and in 
England. " I know," he said, " that I can save this 
country, and that no one else can." Newcastle clung 
to office, and it was finally decided that he and Pitt 
should govern together. Newcastle was to look after 
the votes, and Pitt was to manage the war. Pitt's 
hand was quickly felt everywhere. Well might Fred- 




ENGRAVED BY BORMAY 4 CO., N. 



The Final Grapple with France 355 

erick of Prussia say that England had at last brought 
forth a man. Parliament and the nation were stirred 
to fresh efforts by the fiery enthusiasm of the great 
minister. Liberal grants of money were now forth- 
coming, and a new spirit inspired the service. 

The Conquest of Canada. — Pitt limited his efforts 
in Europe to giving the Prussian king what aid was 
needed to keep France busy, but in America he made 
great exertions. A large force was sent over, com- 
manded by the best generals to be had. Pitt's readi- 
ness to recognize the value of the colonial soldiers 
won a generous response, and twenty thousand troops 
were raised in America to cooperate with the British 
regulars. Three expeditions were planned, with the 
object of breaking the line which the French had 
drawn around the English colonies. The attack on 
Ticonderoga failed, but Louisburg was retaken, and 
in the west, the colonials captured Fort Duquesne, 
and renamed it Pittsburg. 

1759 was a year of triumphs. Ticonderoga and capture of 

Quebec. 

Niagara were forced to surrender, and most important 
of all, Quebec, the French capital and stronghold, was 
captured. The place was almost impregnable and 
was well defended by Montcalm, a famous French 
leader, but one night the English, led by Pitt's favor- 
ite officer, James Wolfe, climbed the steep cliffs 
behind Quebec and surprised the enemy. A short, 
sharp conflict took place, in which the French were 
completely defeated. The commanders on both 
sides were mortally wounded, but Wolfe died with 



35^ The Contest for Empire 

Death of the shouts of his victorious troops resounding in his 
Montcalm. ears, while Montcalm's last hour was darkened with 
the knowledge that Quebec was lost. This contest 
decided the fate of Canada, and before the close of 
the following year it had passed into the hands of 
the British. 

English Conquests in India. — While the English 
were completing the conquest of North America, 
they were laying the foundations of their Indian 
Empire. With little difficulty they made an end 
of the small remnants of French power, taking 
possession of Pondicherry in 1761, and at the same 
time they extended their rule into the heart of 
India. In 1756 the Nawab of Bengal, a cruel and 
vicious tyrant, suddenly attacked the rich trading- 
post of Calcutta. He obtained possession with little 
difficulty and imprisoned one hundred and forty-six 
of the English in a room less than twenty feet 
Black Hole of square and with two small windows. Here they were 
kept for twenty-four hours in the awful heat of an 
Indian summer. A terrible struggle took place. 
The prisoners trampled each other down in their 
frantic efforts to reach the windows, and to get the 
pittance of water handed in. They sent a piteous 
message to the Nawab, but the answer was returned 
that he was asleep and must not be disturbed. In 
their despair they besought their guards to shoot 
them down, but they were answered with jeers and 
laughter. When morning came, and the doors were 
opened, only twenty-three were alive. 



The Final Grapple with France 35/ 

Clive was sent from Madras to avenge his country- 
men. He retook Calcutta, and then led his little 
force of four thousand English and Sepoys into the 
heart of the enemy's country. At Plassey a battle 1757. 
was fought, and the Nawab's army of fifty thou- 
sand men was put to flight by Clive's handful of 
troops. This victory made the English masters of 
the great province of Bengal, and marks the 
beginning of their rule over India. 

The Close of the War. — England moved on from 
victory to victory. Spain had been dragged into 
the war as an ally of France, and her extensive 
colonies offered the English room for fresh con- 
quests, both Manila, the chief city of the Philippines, 
and Havana, the Cuban capital, passing into their 
hands. The long struggle for empire between 
France and England was at end. England was 
now undisputed mistress of the seas, in the Far 
East she was without a rival, and the French flag 
had disappeared from Canada. Never had her 
fame stood so high. In 1763 a treaty of peace peace of 
was signed by which Manila and Havana were 
given back to Spain in return for Florida, and 
France regained some of her lost West Indian col- 
onies. To England were secured Canada and new 
possessions in the West Indies and in the East. 
Some thought the treaty over-generous to France 
and Spain, nevertheless it marked a great triumph 
for England. But in the making of this treaty 
Pitt had no hand. In the midst of England's 



35^ The Contest for Empire 

successes old George II had died. A new king 
ruled in his stead who rested not until he had 
driven the great " Great Commoner " from power. 

Books for Study 

Macaulay, Essays and Lays (Essays on Clive and Pitt). 

Traill, William III. 

Morley, Walpole. 

Seeley, Expansion of England. 

Suggestive Questions 

Section i . — Why did the Irish and Highlanders make a stand 
for James ? What were the interests involved in William's war 
with France? 

Section 2. — What were the terms of the union between Eng- 
land and Scotland? What was the difference between the Whigs 
and the Tories ? 

Section 3. — Why did George I favor the Whigs? Why did 
Parliament not represent the people ? 

Section 4. — Was Walpole's rule good for England? For 
what was England fighting in the eighteenth century? 

Section 5. — What was the importance of the battle of 
Plassey? What did Pitt do for England? 

Special Topics 

The Siege of Arcot : Lang, J., The Story of Lord Clive. 
Wolfe at Quebec: Parkman, Wolfe and Montcalm. 



CHAPTER XIV 
THE RULE OF GEORGE THE THIRD 

O Thou that sendest out the man 

To rule by land and sea, 
Strong mother of a Lion-line, 
Be proud of those strong sons of thine 

Who wrenclVd their rights from thee ! 

What wonder if in noble heat 

Those men thine arms withstood, 
Retaught the lesson thou hadst taught, 
And in thy spirit with thee fought — 
Who sprang from English blood ! 
— Tennyson, England and America in 1782. 

Section i. The New Despotism 

The King who would Rule as well as Reign. — George 
the Second was succeeded on the throne by his grand- 
son, the third George. Unlike his predecessors the George in, 

1760-1820. 
young king was English born and English bred, and 

he often declared that he gloried in the name of 
Briton. He was honest and well-meaning, simple 
in his habits and strictly moral. His industry was 
tremendous, but unfortunately he was by nature 
rather dull and obstinate and his early education 
had been of the worst. He had been brought up 
by his mother, a German princess, whose teachings 
were summed up in the often repeated injunction, 

359 



360 



The Rule of George the Third 



Whigs and 
Tories in 
1760. 



Attack on 
the Whigs. 



" Be king, George, be king," and he had come to 
the throne determined to rule as well as reign. 

The Royal Policy. — Many thing;s favored the young 
king's plan. The Whigs were no longer what they 
had been. They had ceased to care for reform and 
thought only of enjoying the good things of office, 
titles and honors and fat places. Naturally they 
quarrelled among themselves, so there was no united 
party to oppose the king's measures. The Tories 
too had changed. The failure of the rising of 1745 
had convinced them that the Stuart cause was lost, 
and that if they wanted ever to have a hand in 
governing the country they must make up their 
minds to accept the house of Hanover. 

No sooner was George on the throne than he went 
boldly to work to carry out his policy. The first 
step was to get rid of Pitt. By refusing to support 
the great minister's plans for carrying on the war, 
the king forced him to resign. The enemies of 
England rejoiced at the news. " Pitt disgraced ! " 
wrote a Frenchman; "it is worth two victories to us." 
To George this mattered nothing, for he had dealt 
the Whigs a severe blow. They were still too 
powerful to be set aside entirely, so the king 
attempted to use first one and then another of the 
Whig factions. But no one had his honest support, 
and during the first ten years of his reign he turned 
out four Whig ministries. At the same time he was 
building up a party of his own. The royal revenue 
was large and the king's tastes were simple, but he 



The New Despotism 



361 



was soon deep in debt. The money had been 
spent in buying seats in Parliament, in buying votes. 
Day after day the king studied the voting-lists, and 




George III. 



it soon became known that all rewards in money or 
places or titles were for those only who supported 
the royal measures. Before long George was in 



362 The Rule of George the Third 

The "King's possession of a party, known as the "King's 
Friends " and composed of men whose only rule in 
voting was the royal command. " Now indeed," 
exulted the princess dowager, " now indeed my son 
is king." 

Section 2. Wrecking the Empire 

The English Colonies in America. — At the opening 
of the seventeenth century England did not hold one 
foot of soil outside of Europe, but during the troub- 
lous times that followed the planting of colonies in 
America went steadily forwards. By the middle of 
the eighteenth century they extended in an unbroken 
line for a thousand miles along the Atlantic coast, 
and contained a million and a half inhabitants. The 
share of the government in this work had been small: 
it was individual enterprise that had created a new 
England beyond the sea. 
England's For the most part the mother country left the 

policy. colonists to shift for themselves. They made their 

own laws, levied the taxes, chose many of the officers. 
Only in matters of trade did England attempt to 
interfere, telling the colonies where they should buy 
and where they should sell, and forbidding them 
to manufacture anything for themselves which she 
wished them to purchase of her. These regulations 
were irritating, even though not very strictly en- 
forced, but they were simply in accordance with the 
view of the eighteenth century that the trade of a 
colony belonged to the mother country. 



Wire king the Empire 363 

\S 

Usually the relations between England and her 
colonies were harmonious, but the Americans had 
shown themselves independent in spirit and impatient 
of authority, and more than one observer had proph- 
esied that they would soon break away from Eng- 
land's hold. But those who knew them best denied spirit of tue 
this, declaring that they were wholly loyal. The 
truth was the colonists gloried in the name of Eng- 
lishmen, and looked back with love and pride to the 
home from which they had come ; but their interests 
were in America, and it was the province in which 
their lot was cast, Massachusetts or Virginia or 
Maryland, perhaps, which stood first in their affection, 
and not the mother country. Moreover, the men 
who faced the dangers of the wide ocean and the 
trackless wilderness were daring and self-reliant, and 
life in the New World had but strengthened these 
traits. Any attack therefore upon their cherished 
independence was certain to meet with opposition 
which might end in rebellion. 

Trouble with the Colonies. — Although the French 
had been driven out of Canada, the English govern- 
ment thought that an army should be kept in America 
for some years longer, and George Grenville, who be- 
came chief minister in 1763, declared that the colo- 
nists ought to pay for the army, at least in part. There 
was a good deal to be said for this view. England 
was burdened with debt, the result of the recent wars, 
while no part of the empire had gained so much 
from the defeat of France as the colonies, and they 



3^4 



The Rule of George the Third 



The Stamp 
Tax, 1765. 



were prosperous and lightly taxed But it was not 
easy to get them to contribute voluntarily to the 
support of an army which they declared they did not 
need. Now Parliament had never tried to tax the 
colonies, but Grenville believed it had the right to 
do so, and accordingly he proposed a measure requir- 
ing that government stamps should be affixed to all 
colonial documents, the money from the sale of the 
stamps to be used in supporting a military force in 
the colonies. 

In its blindness Parliament passed the Stamp Act 

almost without debate, but in America a storm of 

opposition of indignation broke forth. The colonists declared that 

the Ameri- 
cans. Parliament had no power to tax them, for they 

were not represented there, and taxation without 
representation was tyranny. Patrick Henry, a mem- 
ber of the Virginia assembly, spoke a vigorous word 
of warning. " Caesar and Tarquin had each his 
Brutus, Charles I his Cromwell, and George III — " 
" Treason, treason," cried the speaker. "May profit 
by their example," Henry went on deliberately. 
"And if that be treason, make the most of it." 
The attempt to execute the law was followed by 
rioting in all the large towns, the stamp officers were 
mobbed, and the stamps destroyed. Finally a 
congress of delegates from the different colonies 
met in New York, and protested vigorously against 
th~ laws as an infringement of their rights as Eng- 
lishmen. In England William Pitt came forward as 
the champion of the colonists. He asserted that 



The Stamp 
Act Congresso 



Wrecking the Empire 365 

there should be no taxation without representation, 
and he electrified the Commons by declaring that he 
rejoiced that America had resisted the Stamp Act. Repeal of the 
In the face of opposition at home and in the colonies, I7 6? P ° 
Parliament gave way and the act was repealed. 

There was great rejoicing in America over the 
victory, but it was soon changed to indignation. 
Many people in England thought it disgraceful to 
give way before the colonists, and the next year 
Parliament made a second attempt to tax them, a second 

r attempt to 

this time by imposing duties on tea, glass, paper, tax, 1767. 
and paints imported into America. The result was 
as before. There was rioting and resistance in the 
colonies, and opposition by Pitt and his followers in 
England. Again Parliament drew back, having 
succeeded only in weakening the loyalty of the 
colonists to the mother country. 

The King and the Colonists. — In 1770 affairs in 
England took a fatal turn. George, having looked 
over the growing ranks of the "King's Friends," 
felt himself strong enough to take matters into his 
own hands. Accordingly he upset the fourth Whig 
ministry of his reign, and put at the head of the 
government Lord North, a good-natured, indolent, Lord North, 
and able nobleman who was not above being a royal 
took During the next twelve years George, aided 
by North, ruled the country, to his own liking perhaps, 
but much to England's harm. 

Acting on the king's orders, North made a third The Tea Act, 

1773- 

attempt to tax the Americans. As before, the 



3 66 



The Rule of George the Third 



Measures 
against 
Massachu- 
setts. 



colonies resisted both by protest and by violence. 
But this time there was no drawing back on the part 
of the government. George was just as determined 
as his subjects, and he decided to make an example 
of the rebellious Puritan province of Massachusetts. 
Its right to govern itself was taken away, and Boston, 

the principal 
port, was 
closed. When 
it was seen 
that the other 
colonies in- 
stead of being 
cowed by these 
measures were 
quick with 
sympathy and 
aid for their 
unhappy sister 
colony, addi- 
tional laws 
were passed ex- 
cluding Massa- 
A Minute-man. 

chusetts men 

from the fisheries, and forbidding them to trade with 
the rest of America. At the same time more soldiers 
were sent over to enforce obedience. 

The First Bloodshed. — The colonists were loath to 
go to war with the mother country, but they were in 
no mood to submit. At first, however, they contented 




The American Revolution 367 

themselves with protests and petitions to the king and 
to Parliament, but at the same time they quietly pre- 
pared for the worst, collecting stores, and forming 
themselves into bands of minute-men, so called be- The minute- 
cause they were to be ready at a minute's notice. 

The first collision occurred in the spring of 1775. Lexington 
Gage, the British general commanding in Boston, sent ^ 75 . on 
out a small detachment of soldiers to destroy the 
stores collected at Concord, a few miles from Boston. 
The expedition started in the night, but word of its 
coming had gone before, for Paul Revere, a young Longfellow, 

Paul Revere s 

man of Boston, set out a few hours earlier to carry Ride. 
the warning to the villages along the road, and the 
British found the country up in arms. They suc- 
ceeded in reaching Concord, only to encounter a strong 
force of militia hastily called together. A sharp 
skirmish followed, and the British marched back to 
Boston under fire all the way. This was war, and 
both sides now made ready in good earnest. 



Section 3. The American Revolution 

Strength of the Combatants. — At first glance it 
would seem madness for the Americans to attempt to churchm, 
resist England. The population of the British Isles carvel. 
was almost six times that of the colonies. In wealth 
and resources there was no comparison. England Advantages 
had a fine navy, while the colonists had none at all. nsn. 
To the trained British regulars were opposed simply 
raw militia men fresh from the plow. Moreover, in 



368 The Rule of George the Third 

the beginning England was more united in forcing 
the colonies to submit than were the colonies in resist- 
ing the mother country. 

But against these advantages it must be kept in 
mind that America was far away, and it was not easy 
to transport soldiers so many thousands of miles. 
Then, when the British reached America, they were 
set to fighting under conditions which they did not 
Advantages understand. The colonists on the contrary were at 
cans. home, they generally fought on the defensive and the 

country was well suited for defence. Above all, they 
were soldiers already in everything but discipline, for 
they were bold and active, handy with the rifle, and 
skilled woodsmen. And they were fortunate in their 
leaders. Washington, Arnold, Greene, and Morgan 
were better generals than any of those that England 
sent against them. Then, too, the British made the 
mistake of despising the Americans, declaring that 
they were cowards and would not fight. With a few 
thousand men they believed they could sweep the 
country from end to end. 

There were some in England who not merely 
thought but hoped otherwise. "You cannot conquer 
America," cried Pitt, now Earl of Chatham, in Parlia- 
ment. With Chatham were the best of the Whig 
party, who saw that the cause of the colonists was 
the cause of English freedom. One of the most 
outspoken was Charles Fox. He had acquired a bad 
fame as a spendthrift and gambler, but now in 
defence of America he was to prove himself the most 



The American Revolution 369 

brilliant debater of his time. Another friend of the 
colonists was Edmund Burke, great as a thinker and 
as an orator. The cause of liberty was ably defended 
by these and others, but at first they availed little 
against popular passion. To the struggling Ameri- 
cans, however, their sympathy meant much. 

The Beginning of the War. — At first the fighting 
was mostly in the northeastern colonies. The 
British headquarters were in Boston, and here they 
shortly found themselves besieged by a large force 
of Americans. The first real battle of the war was Bunker mil, 
fought on Bunker Hill, just outside the town. The 
colonials fought until their powder gave out, when 
they were forced to withdraw, leaving one-half the 
enemy's force dead or wounded. This encounter 
made a deep impression in England, for it was plain 
that the Americans would fight. After this the 
colonists organized an army under the command of 
George Washington, a wise and noble leader. He George 
pressed the British so hard that they were forced to as ing ° n ' 
leave Boston, but only to take possession of New 
York, which was undefended. 

During these months, a change had taken place in 
popular feeling in America. At first the colonists 
had no thought of doing more than protest, and it 
was almost insensibly that they drifted into war. 
But even yet there was no idea of separation : all that 
was intended was to force the mother country to 
recognize their rights as Englishmen. When the 
British government, however, declared that they were 



370 



The Ride of George the Third 



declared 
1776 



Saratoga, 
1777. 



rebels and sent against them soldiers hired in Ger- 
many, their feeling began to change, and by 1776 
they made up their minds to cut loose from England. 
Accordingly, a congress of delegates from the differ- 
independence ent colonies drew up a Declaration of Independence, 
and on the 4th of July this was adopted. Ever 
since that time the 4th of July has been kept as a 
national holiday in America. 

The Turn in the Struggle. — During the next year, 
the fighting went on with varying success, some- 
times the British winning a victory, and sometimes 
the Americans. But in the autumn of 1777 a strong 
British force, commanded by General Burgoyne, was 
defeated and forced to surrender at Saratoga. This 
battle marked the turning-point of the war. It is 
true that during the next winter the fortunes of the 
colonists seemed at the lowest ebb, supplies were not 
forthcoming, and the sufferings of the soldiers from 
cold and hunger were terrible, but help was at hand. 
Burgoyne's defeat had convinced the world that the 
Americans were likely to win in the end. The 
French were glad of a chance to humble England, 
and in 1778 they formed an alliance with the colo- 
nists, agreeing to furnish help in the shape of men 
and supplies. 

Chatham was ill and failing, but he dragged him- 
self down to the House of Lords for the last time, to 
urge that England, instead of waging war with her 
own flesh and blood, should make peace with the 
Americans, and then turn all her forces against 



Alliance 
between 
trance and 
the Ameri- 
cans, 1778. 



The American Revolution 371 

France. In the midst of his speech, he was struck 
down by apoplexy, and was borne off by his son, 
William Pitt, the future premier. A few weeks later Death of 

, . . ., Chatham. 

the great war minister passed away. 

The Close of the War. — Burgoyne's defeat followed 
by the French alliance convinced many in England 
that it was useless to continue the war. Even North 
urged peace. But the king had no thought of giv- 
ing up the struggle, and so the contest, which people 
were coming to call the King's War, went on for some 
time longer. Spain as well as France had joined in 
the alliance against England, and there was fighting 
all over the world. The end came in 1781, when the 
English general, Lord Cornwallis, found himself caught 
at Yorktown, Virginia, between Washington's army Yorktown, 
and the French fleet. Unable to break their way 
through the American lines, 4500 British soldiers 
marched out to the tune of " The world turned up- 
side down," and surrendered their arms. This prac- 
tically ended the war in America, but fighting went 
on elsewhere and with better results for England. 
In 1782 the French fleet was defeated by Admiral 
Rodney off St. Lucia in the West Indies. This was Rodney's 
followed by the final repulse of an allied French and west indies, 
Spanish force which for three years had been trying 
to capture Gibraltar. 

England was, however, too disheartened to con- 
tinue the struggle. Yorktown had convinced even 
the king that the colonies were lost. He permitted 
the eager North to go and called back the Whigs, 



1782. 



I I 

to treat w ith the Americans. In 
1783 a ce was signed at Versailles, Us 

.-<.. us were si witn those o\ the 

\ oi twentj years earlier, England had aln 

the independence oi the colonies. She 

Florida to Spain and several oi the West 

Indies to France Fi id foe believed that 

i*s sun had set To this pass the country 

had boon brought b\ twelve years oi royal rule. 

Books loi Stw-v 

He 

\ .-. ... 

. 

Su^cstivo Qncwtlnni 

Skctio* . .. out his plan of ruling? 

What was 1 W g 

Section a - - lontal policy. What can 

schen es? Why was it 

\ 3 \\ s ind have to moot in 

Special Topics 

F1ske> s< . \ 

rh« . . :. oh. IX. 



CHAF1 EF XV 

THE GREAT WAR WITH FRANCS 

When France in wrath hergianl limbs upreared, 
And with that oath, which .■ tea, 

trong foot and Id be free, 

r,< ai for me, how I hoped and feared ! 

— Coleridge, France^ An Ode* 

Seci iom i. Tin. Shori Peace 

The Boy Prime Minister The di ilts 



of the king's attempt to rule brought the Whigs back 
to office, but they did not long stay there, owing to 
quarrels among themselves. Fos refused to work .'. i t h 
other leaders, and in the hope of turning them 
out oi power, formed a coalition with Lord North. Thecoma. 
The nation ■■ e men who had so 

often abused each other combining for the sake of 
getting into office. George was especially angry at 
this alliance between the man he so distrusted and 
his former tool. He o far as to say that to 

avoid having anything to do with thorn ho would 
offor the post of chief minister to " Mr. Anybody 
ho would tako it." Hut in the end he had to cive 



wno 






way, for the coalition controlled a large majority in 
Parliament. 



374 The Great War with France 

It was not long, however, before a chance came 
for George to get rid of his new ministers. Fox pro- 
posed a plan for governing the British possessions in 
India that caused much opposition. After a long 
struggle he was beaten in Parliament, and the king 
at once appointed as prime minister William Pitt, a 
wmiam Pitt, son of the Great Commoner. At this time Pitt 
the Younger. was ^^ twenty-four years of age, and the wits 
laughed at " a kingdom trusted to a schoolboy's 
care." But the " schoolboy " was quite equal to his 
task. He had great ability, and from childhood 
he had been carefully trained for a career in Par- 
liament. When he entered the Commons in 1780, 
some one said to Fox, " Pitt will be one of the first 
men in the House of Commons," to which Fox 
replied, " He is so already." 

Pitt's appointment was followed by a battle royal. 
Fox, North, and Burke went vigorously to work to 
turn the young minister out of office. They con- 
trolled the votes, and every measure that Pitt pro- 
posed was rejected. Still he would not resign, and 
after a few weeks the tide began to turn. His pluck 
had won the admiration of the nation and convinced 
office seekers that he was a man to whom they would 
wisely link their fortunes. Pitt now dissolved Par- 
a famous liament and called for a general election. Great 
i^ 011 ' efforts were put forth by Fox's friends in his behalf, 
ladies of fashion canvassed for him, and the beautiful 
Duchess of Devonshire offered to give a kiss to any- 
one who would vote for Fox. In spite of this he almost 



The Short Peace 375 

failed of reelection, 160 of his followers lost their 
seats, and Pitt went back to Parliament with a secure 
majority. 

Pitt the Reformer. — From 1784 to 1801 Pitt ruled 
England. He was too independent to be made a 
royal tool as North had been; but the king had no 
choice save between Pitt and Fox, therefore he gave 
Pitt his steady support. Pitt was as great a man as 
his father, only in a different way: peace, not war, 
was his province, and now for eight years he had a 
chance to show what he could do. 

The years following the American war were a 
prosperous time for England. Many had thought a time of 
the loss of the colonies meant ruin, but it was prosperity - 
quickly seen that this was not so. English trade 
was greater than ever, wealth flowed in from India, 
and manufactures took a fresh start. This pros- 
perity was not due to Pitt, but he made a treaty 
with France which helped trade, and taxes were 
adjusted so that people found them less burden- 
some. 

Pitt carried through some reforms that he had Reforms 
at heart. The bar and the army were opened 
to Romanists, for a century excluded by the Test 
Act. The lot of convicts was improved by trans- 
porting them to Australia, instead of selling them 
into slavery on a tropical plantation. Pitt had 
become much interested in the suppression of the 
slave-trade, but even with the aid of Fox he failed 
to carry through a measure against it. Nor did he 



376 



The Great War zvitli France 



succeed in doing anything to reform Parliament, 
the reason being that the Whigs in their jealousy 
of his power refused to support him. 

Section 2. The French Republic 



Dickens, 

Tale of Two 
Cities. 

State Of 
b ranee. 



Meeting of 
the States 
General. 



The Outbreak of the French Revolution. — In 1789 
a terrible revolution broke out in France. For cen- 
turies the people had been oppressed by the govern- 
ment and the nobles. The States General, the national 
assembly corresponding to the English Parliament, 
had not met for 178 years. There was no opportu- 
nity to influence the decisions of the king or to bring 
grievances to notice. The taxes were very heavy, 
and they fell more severely upon the poor than upon 
the rich. The hated feudal dues were still retained 
in France, and the peasants were little better than 
slaves. Thus millions of people toiled and starved 
that the noblesse might lead lives of pleasure and 
that a gay and brilliant court might be maintained 
in Paris. 

The king, Louis XVI, was a well-meaning man, 
but he seemed unable to mend matters. The 
enormous debt imposed upon the nation by his 
spendthrift predecessors was increased by the ex- 
travagance of the gay young queen, Marie Antoinette, 
and by the aid given the Americans in the war with 
England. At last, in despair, Louis summoned the 
States General. Now the chance of the people had 
come. At once the States General went to work to 



The French Republic 377 

reform abuses, sweeping away the servile dues and 
all unjust taxes and privileges. 

But the Revolution did not stop here. The people, 
maddened by generations of wrong, did many violent 
things. The nobles became frightened, and a great 
number left France. Louis would have followed 
them, but he was seized and brought to Paris. The 
sovereigns of Austria and Prussia made ready to 
invade France in his aid. Thereupon the revolu- 
tionists committed terrible excesses, the king and the The Reign 
queen were sent to the guillotine, and all the nobles 
and gentlemen who could be found suffered the same 
fate. The monarchy was abolished, and France 
became a republic where all men were to be free and 
equal. 

England and the French Revolution. — Englishmen 
watched with interest what was happening in France. 
At first many hailed the rising with sympathy, think- 
ing it was going to be an orderly revolution like their 
own of 1688. The French were protesting against 
wrongs that had been abolished in England long since. 
Servile dues had not been required of English peas- 
ants since the fifteenth century, and the right of the 
king to govern without the consent of the nation had 
fallen with the Stuarts. But as the French became 
more furious, England shrank back. Burke was one 
of the first to sound the alarm, and henceforth he and 
Fox, who was on fire with sympathy for France, 
met only as enemies. The sad plight of the French 
refugees aroused great sympathy, and many English- 



37$ The Great War with France 

men were ready to go to war with France for their 
sake. Finally, when the revolutionists got the better 
of the Prussian and Austrian armies, a panic broke 
out in England. The nobles and rich people were sure 
that their turn would come next, that England would 
be invaded, and that the lower classes would rise as 
the French had done. So they clamored for war 
with France and for harsh laws against those who 
showed sympathy with the Revolution. Pitt did his 
best to keep the peace; but when the news came that 
Louis XVI had been put to death, he gave way, 
and within a month England and France were at 
war. 

War with the French Republic. — Pitt now turned 
his back forever upon his plans of reform; henceforth 
his strength was to be spent in the struggle with 
France. He was not a great war minister, but 
with courage and determination he guided England 
through many perils. In a popular song of the time 
he was called "the pilot who weathered the storm." 
Behind him was a united nation, for at first opposi- 
tion to the war was confined to Fox and a handful 
of devoted followers, all that was now left of the 
The coalition great Whig party. United with England in the 
France attack upon the French republic were Austria, 

Prussia, and Spain. It was France against Europe. 

Nevertheless the cause of the allies did not pros- 
per at all. Their half-hearted forces could not stand 
against French armies fired with zeal for the repub- 
lic and splendidly led. Almost unnoticed at first 






The French Republic 379 

among the republican leaders was Napoleon Bona- Napoleon 
parte, a young Corsican who speedily proved him- 
self to be one of the greatest generals the world has 
ever seen. The idol of the people, the obscure lieu- 
tenant became in a few years not merely the head 
of the army, but also of the nation. The coalition 
against France broke up before Bonaparte's marvel- Break-up of 
lous triumphs. State after state made terms with 
the victor, till in a short time the English were left to 
carry on the war almost single-handed. 

England was in great danger. Holland and Spain 
were now allied with France, and their combined 
fleets outnumbered the English. Early in 1797 a 
splendid victory was won by a small English squad- 
ron over twice as many Spanish vessels off Cape St. The battle 
Vincent. Conspicuous for his bravery was a young Vincent, 1797 
Commodore Nelson, who boarded two of the en- 
emy's ships in quick succession, receiving an armful 
of swords surrendered by the Spanish officers. Dan- 
ger from the French and the Dutch was not over, 
however, when a terrible mutiny broke out in the Eng- Mutiny m 

the English 

lish ships stationed in the Channel. The sailors had fleet, 
indeed many wrongs: their pay was low, the food 
bad, and the discipline harsh and brutal; but it was 
treason to choose this time to rebel, for had the 
enemy but known the state of the English fleet, Eng- 
land would have been invaded without delay. Fortu- 
nately, the mutiny was quelled before the news spread 
abroad. 

The war continued five years longer. Bonaparte 



38o 



The Great War with France 



Battle of the 
Nile, 1798. 



Nelson at 

Copenhagen, 

iboi. 



Newbold, 

Admirals 
All. 



Peace of 
Amiens, 1802. 



Irish home 
rule, 1782- 
x8oo. 



won all the land battles ; but Nelson, who was the 
greatest admiral England has ever had, could some- 
times checkmate him by winning victories on the sea. 
The defeat of the French in the battle of the Nile 
forced Bonaparte to abandon his great scheme of 
building up an empire in the East. Three years later 
Nelson captured the Danish fleet off Copenhagen, 
thus preventing Denmark from aiding the French. 
On this occasion Nelson was only second in com- 
mand, and his superior, thinking success impossible, 
signalled a retreat ; but Nelson, who had some years 
before lost the sight of an eye, put his telescope to 
that eye, and, declaring that he could not see the 
signal, fought on until the battle was won. 

By 1802 France and England were so weary of 
fighting that they agreed to the peace of Amiens, 
and the war came to an end. 

The Union of England and Ireland. — When the 
peace of Amiens was signed, Pitt was no longer at 
the head of the government, for a disagreement with 
the king concerning Ireland had forced him to lay 
down his office. During the first half of the eigh- 
teenth century, Irish affairs attracted little notice. 
Exhausted by the terrible experiences of the pre- 
ceding years and held down by harsh laws, the peo- 
ple suffered in silence or sought homes in other 
lands. Ireland's chance came when England's hands 
were full with the American quarrel. There was 
much restlessness among the Irish, and fearing an 
outbreak, the government granted what was demanded, 



The French Republic 381 

— an independent parliament and freedom of trade 
with England. Ireland now had home rule, but the 
result was disappointing, chiefly because it was not 
true home rule, as the Roman Catholics, the bulk 
of the population, had no share in the government. 

When the war with France broke out, the situation 
in Ireland became very disquieting. Some of the 
discontented Irish entered into secret correspondence 
with the republican leaders, and twice the French, 
relying upon their aid, planned a descent upon Eng- 
land by way of the sister island. Terrified by the 
danger, the government attempted to disarm the 
whole Catholic population, but failed in spite of 
the cruel methods to which it resorted. Matters came 
to a crisis in 1798, when a serious rebellion broke Rebellion of 
out in the southeast Of Ireland. The scenes of 1641 I79 ' 
were repeated, and the atrocities committed by the 
troops sent against the rebels recalled the doings 
of Cromwell. 

In a month the rising was at an end, but Pitt felt 
the time had come to bring England and Ireland 
under one rule. The Catholics were won over by the 
hope of emancipation, while wholesale bribery in- 
duced the Irish Parliament to vote its own destruc- 
tion. In 1800 the Act of Union was carried Act of union 
through. Henceforth there was to be but one Par- 
liament for the three kingdoms, and the cross of St. 
Patrick was added to those of St. Andrew and St. 
George in the Union Jack. Ireland obtained free 
trade and just representation, but the most important 



382 The Great War with France 

boon of all was withheld, for nothing was done for the 
Catholics. Pitt tried to make good his word, but in 
his way stood the stubborn, bigoted, half-imbecile old 
king, who declared that it would be a violation of his 
coronation oath for him to assent to any measure 
Relief with- of relief for the Catholics. So for a generation longer 

held from the , , , , , . . 

catholics. a whole people was cheated of justice. 



Section 3. The Napoleonic Wars 

England threatened with Invasion (1803-1815). — 

Little more than a year of peace was secured by the 

treaty of Amiens. Permanent peace was impossible 

for England while Europe was in a state of turmoil. 

Napoleon's Napoleon Bonaparte, not content with defending 

ambition. .„ . . , ..... 

trance against her enemies, was bent on establishing 
an empire. He had brought all the states of west- 
ern Europe under his control, and had forced the 
eastern powers — Austria, Prussia, and Russia — to 
come to terms with him. England was his one great 
rival, and England he determined to subdue. Elabo- 
rate preparations were made for an invasion of the 
island kingdom. Napoleon gathered an army at 
Boulogne, as Caesar had done, and transports were 
made ready to carry the troops across the Channel 
at the first favorable opportunity. 

England was in a state of terror. Strange tales 
were told of the power and cruelty of the conqueror. 
Nurses frightened naughty children by threatening 
that " Boney " would come and get them. Sober- 



The Napoleonic Wars 



38. 



minded statesmen were alarmed, for no such peril 

had threatened the land since the Armada. The 

people were urged to provide a sufficient force to 

meet the arch enemy. All able-bodied citizens offered Thevoiunteei 

their services, and an army of three hundred and 




Nelson's Ship "Victory" at Trafalgar. 



fifty thousand volunteers was soon ready. Party 
feuds were forgotten in the emergency, and the king 
called upon Pitt to take charge of the government. 

The Battle of Trafalgar (1805). — For two years 
Napoleon waited his chance to cross the Channel. 
"It is but a ditch," he said. "Any one can cross it 
who has but the courage to try." There was, how- 



3^4 



The Great War with France 



Hearts of 
Oak, by W. 
G. Stables. 



Death of 
Nelson. 



ever, one serious obstacle. Nelson and his fleet 
lay in wait to pounce upon the French transports 
the moment they left harbor. Napoleon's war 
ships were no match for those of England, and he 
dared not risk a battle. In the hope of hoodwink- 
ing the English, he ordered his admiral to decoy 
Nelson's fleet to the West Indies and then secretly 
return to guard the Channel. Nelson was not so 
easily outwitted. He recrossed the Atlantic more 
swiftly than the French fleet could do, and was back 
in time to prevent Napoleon's embarkation. Six 
months later, the English fleet met the combined 
French and Spanish squadrons off Cape Trafalgar 
and destroyed them. The victory was one of the 
most brilliant in English history. It gave Britain 
complete mastery of the seas, and the danger of inva- 
sion was over. But the nation's joy was mingled with 
sorrow. The great admiral, whose courage and devo- 
tion had rendered her navy invincible, fell in the 
thick of the fight, fatally wounded. His last signal 
to the fleet, " England expects every man to do his 
duty," has been the watch-word of the English sailor 
since that day. 

Forced to abandon all hope of conquering Eng- 
land, Napoleon withdrew his army from Boulogne 
and turned to the subjugation of eastern Europe. 
At Austerlitz, he met the armies of Austria and 
Prussia and won a decisive battle. The victory 
made him master of the Continent. The news of 
Napoleon's triumph gave William Pitt his death- 




Cadi); JjfZ^ &J -^ 



^iviza - r CENTRAL A WESTERN 

* a EUROPE 

^ 1815 

t^ German Confederation 

\ SCALE OF ENGLISH MILES 

25 50 100 200 



Longitude East from Greenwich 



ENGRAVED BY B0BMAY & CO., N.Y 



The Napoleonic Wars 3^5 

blow Worn out with anxiety and overwork, the Death of 

. , r William Pitt, 

great statesman passed away within six months after 1806 
the battle of Austerlitz. It was a sad end for a 
strong and useful life. Pitt was disappointed in all 
his early hopes of peace and reform, and he died 
believing that the nations of Europe were given over 
to the tyranny of Napoleon. 

The Peninsular War (1808-1814). — The English 
people now hated and feared Napoleon even more 
than they had hated and feared the Revolution. They 
were firmly convinced that there could be no lasting 
peace for Europe until the ambitious despot was 
dethroned. England controlled the seas, but Napo- 
leon was master of the Continent. It was like a duel 
between a whale and an elephant. Neither power 
could get at the other. 

England's opportunity came in 1808 when Spain 
rebelled against the conqueror. Napoleon had placed 
his brother Joseph on the throne. The Spanish peo- 
ple, who had no liking for French rule, rose in revolt, 
and the British government sent troops and ammuni- 
tion to their aid. For six long years an English army 
fought for the liberation of Spain. Sir Arthur Welles- 
ley, an officer who had won fame in India, was placed 
in command. The difficulties of the situation were The Burial 

, of Sir John 

enormous. He had to conduct his army through a Moore, hy 

.. . . J . . .-, Charles 

mountainous country, little known to his guides, Wolfe _ 
where the people were jealous and suspicious even 
of their allies, while the emperor sent against him 
his best generals and disciplined troops. Wellesley 



386 The Great War with France 

• brought to his task, however, endless patience and 
military skill not inferior to that of the great 
Napoleon. One by one he overcame all obstacles. 
Town after town and fortress after fortress were 
recovered for Spain, until at last the French were 
driven beyond the Pyrenees. England rewarded 
Wellesley's services by the title Duke of Wellington. 

The Battle of Waterloo (1815). — Meantime the 
nations of Europe had risen against Napoleon and 
driven him from his throne. The French people still 
had faith in him, and he was able to raise an army of 
two hundred thousand men devoted to his interests. 
So supported, he made ready to fight the combined 
forces of Russia, Austria, Prussia, and England. 
Wellington was summoned to take command of the 
English army. At Waterloo, the emperor was 
brought to bay. His troops were the veterans of 
many wars, and they fought with splendid heroism, 
but to no avail. The French army was driven from 
the field, pursued, and cut to pieces. Napoleon was 
ruined. The man who had been for twenty years 
the greatest power in Europe was sent to end his 
Napoleon m life in St. Helena, an island so remote from the 
civilized world that escape was impossible. 

Peace of Vienna (1815). — At the Congress of 
Vienna, where kings and statesmen came together to 
reconstruct the map of Europe and to reward the 
powers that had fought against Napoleon, England 
gained little territory, but her acquisitions all proved 
to be valuable. Malta and the Ionian Islands 



The Napoleonic Wars 387 

furnished her excellent ports in the Mediterranean, 
Mauritius was a convenient halfway station in the 
route to India, while the Dutch settlements at the 
Cape of Good Hope gave Britain a foothold on 
the "dark Continent." 

Far more important for the future of England 
than any gain in territory was the glory won by the 
war. The splendid victories of Nelson and Welling- 
ton made Britain the first nation in Europe. On the 
sea, her supremacy was unquestioned. The fleets of Britain's 
France and Spain had been destroyed at Trafalgar, supremacy, 
and there was no other in Europe that could com- 
pare with the British navy in strength and efficiency. 

The American War (1812-1814). — England's real 
rival for the mastery of the sea was across the 
Atlantic. The American colonies that had won 
independence in 1783 were rapidly becoming a great 
nation. Their flag might be seen in every quarter of 
the globe, and their ships were rapidly encroaching 
on the trade that English merchants had regarded 
as peculiarly their own. During the Napoleonic 
wars, English vessels had been prohibited from en- 
tering any European port, and England, by way 
of getting even, forbade the ships of any other Order in 
nation to trade with France and her allies. Many 
American vessels, attempting to carry goods to the 
Continent in spite of the order, were captured by 
English men-of-war and held as prizes. 

These losses made the Yankees very angry, but 
there was another even more irritating grievance. 



333 



The Great War with Fn 



mice 



of Anerican 
seamsn. 



England had great need of men, and Englishmen 
wherever found, were liable to be forced into the 
king's service. His Majesty's commanders were 
impressment authorized to search American ships and to seize all 
British-born sailors and impress them into the navy, 
It was not always easy to distinguish between an 
American and an Englishman, and many mistakes 
were made. Moreover, English law held that a man 
who had once been an Englishman was always an 
Englishman. He could not free himself from the 
obligations of a subject by becoming a citizen of 
another country. Thousands of Britons had settled 
in the United States, and, regarding themselves as 
Americans, had enlisted in the navy or found employ- 
ment on merchant vessels. They were now claimed 
by England. The United States government pro- 
tested in vain and finally declared war. 

England had sent so many troops to the Continent 
that she had few to spare for this new foe. The 
Yankees soon proved that they had lost nothing in 
courage or perseverance in the twenty-seven years 
since the Revolutionary War. To her surprise and 
shame, England was beaten on her own element, the 
sea. Her troops were withdrawn, and, though the 
treaty of peace made no promises, the English gov- 
ernment has never since attempted to overhaul an 
American ship in search of men or goods. 



Treaty of 
Ghent, 1814. 



Suffering of the English People 3 8 9 

Section 4. Suffering of the English People 

The Cost of War. — The twenty years of war had 
cost England dear. Thousands of British soldiers 
had fallen on the field of battle or been lost at sea. 
Many of those who returned home after the peace 
were maimed or broken in health. Even the able- 
bodied found it difficult to get work and to make a 
place for themselves in the land which they had not 
seen for so long. The disbanded soldiers not infre- 
quently became beggars or vagabonds, and cherished 
a sense of grievance against the government that had 
so meanly rewarded them for their services. 

The great war cost heavily in money as well as in 
men. The funds required to supply the armies had 
been raised by taxes so heavy that they were seriously Taxation, 
felt by the poor. The commonest articles, such as 
sugar, salt, beer, and tea, paid duty at the ports, and 
sold at higher prices in consequence. The people of 
England had become too many to be fed from the 
crops grown on English soil, and they were obliged 
to buy wheat from foreign lands. During the war, 
little grain could be imported, and prices were very 
high. Wheat sometimes sold at twenty shillings per 
bushel, and a loaf of bread cost two shillings. 
When peace opened the ports to trade, the land- The com 

Law, 1815 

owners induced Parliament to pass a law providing 
that no wheat could be brought in from abroad while 
English wheat was selling at less than ten shillings a 
bushel. By this wicked law, bread was made so dear 



39° The Great War with France 

that poor men could not buy enough to keep their 
children from starving. Work was scarce and wages 
low. A common laborer could rarely earn more than 
eight shillings a week. Many men gave over the 
attempt to support their families and were content to 
live on charity. 

In former times, when most of the peasants owned 
little farms and raised food for their own use, the 
Corn Law would not have brought such suffering. 
But the small holdings were now being bought up 
by wealthy men who owned great estates and had 
money enough to introduce modern methods of 
cultivation. The former owners were fain to earn 
wages as agricultural laborers. 

The Industrial Revolution. — While the mass of the 
people were sinking into poverty, a few men were 
growing rich. The landowners, who were getting 
high prices for their wheat and good rents for their 
farms, were well content; but other men were mak- 
ing money even faster than they. These were the 
manufacturers. 

We have seen how. cloth was made in the four- 
teenth century on the spinning-wheel and the hand- 
loom. English artisans had been working with this 
simple machinery ever since. The craftsman plied 
his trade in his own home, assisted by a few appren- 
tices and journeymen, and by the women and chil- 
dren of the family. During the latter half of the 
eighteenth century, machines were invented for spin- 
ning and weaving far more rapidly and with less 



Suffering of the EnglisJi People 



39i 



labor. The spinning-jenny spun eight threads at a 
time. The spinning mule carried a thousand spindles, 
and one man could do all that was necessary to keep 
it in order. The power loom, run by water or by 
steam, could weave faster than the hand loom and 




The Spinning Mule. 



more cheaply too. Since the new machinery was too 
expensive to be owned by the artisans, men of 
wealth built great factories where the power was The factory 
supplied by a water-fall or by a steam engine, and 
hundreds of men, women, and children were hired to 
tend it. The country districts, where little work 



392 



The Great War with France 



was to be had, were quickly abandoned, and people 
crowded to the factory towns. Several such towns 
produced more cloth than the whole of England had 
done before. Much more was manufactured than 
could be sold at home, and the manufacturers began 
to send quantities of cotton goods to Europe and to 



3^> 




he Rocket, Stephenson's Engine. 



The steam- 
boat. 



America for sale. Great fortunes were accumulated 
in this profitable business. 

The invention of the steamboat, soon after, trans- 
formed the carrying trade. The first successful Brit- 
ish steamer, the Comet, was run on the Clyde in 
1812. The Great Western made the trip from Liver- 



Suffering of the English People 



393 



pool to New York in 1838, and regular lines of trans- 
atlantic steamers have been running ever since. The 
modern steamboat is an ocean palace with far greater 
capacity for passengers and freight than the largest 
sailing vessel. Steam as a motive power is both 
swifter and surer than wind, and English merchants 
did well to take immediate advantage of the new 
invention. 

A yet greater change was brought about by the The railroad 
use of the steam engine in land transportation. In 
1825, George Stephenson accomplished what men 
had thought 
impossible. He 
built a locomo- 
tive engine ca- 
pable of draw- 
ing a train of 
cars along a 
level railway. 
The Liverpool 
and Manches- 
ter line was opened for traffic in 1830, and the trial trip 
made an immense sensation in the business world. 
The train ran thirty-six miles an hour, six times as 
fast as the average stage-coach, while carrying far 
more passengers and freight. Railways were soon 
built to connect the trade centres of England, and 
travel by stage was abandoned except in mountains 
and out of the way districts. 

Machinery, steamboats, and railways could not be 




Travel by Stage. 



394 The Great War with France 

built without iron. Engines could not be run without 
coal. The new demand for these minerals brought 
opening up to light the hidden treasures of Britain. The coal 
resources. 1 measures of Northumberland, Lancashire, and south 
Wales were discovered, and rich deposits of iron were 
found in the same favored regions. Smelting fur- 
naces and foundries were built, and great towns 
grew up in regions that had been sheep pastures for 
centuries. Smoke and ashes speedily converted the 
farm lands of Lancashire into the ugly " black coun- 
try." The northern counties, barren and backward 
heretofore, grew richer and more populous than the 
southern counties and soon became the most influ- 
ential part of England. 

The Injury done to Laborers. — The benefits of 
this extraordinary prosperity were not shared by the 
laborers. The skill of the artisan was not needed 
in the cotton in the factory. The new machines could be tended 
quite as well by a man with no training. Women 
and children were preferred to men because they were 
cheaper, more nimble, and less likely to complain of 
ill use. While able-bodied craftsmen were seeking in 
vain for work, thousands of these new bread-winners 
were spending their lives in tasks beyond their 
strength. The hours were very long. Many of the 
factories were run twelve and fourteen and even six- 
teen hours a day. Children were sometimes put to 
work at six years of age and forced to toil from sun- 
rise to sunset, with but half an hour at noon for food 
and rest. In some factories they were even employed 



mines. 



The Demand for Reform 395 

at night. There was no time for play, no time for The c ry of 
school, and they grew weak and sickly because of by Elizabeth 
confinement and overwork. Browning. 

In the mines, as well as in the factories, the children i n the coai- 
of England were being maimed and dwarfed by 
heavy toil. Women and boys were used to drag the 
carloads of coal from the levels where the men were 
at work, to the pit's mouth. Harnessed to the car 
like animals, half naked and blackened by coal-dust, 
they were forced to crawl on all fours along the 
dark, narrow passages of the mine. 



Section 5. The Demand for Reform 

The Laborers Protest. — The men who were thrown 
out of work by the employment of women and chil- 
dren undertook to destroy the looms and spindles 
that had robbed them of bread. Angry mobs broke The Luddite 

1 1 • • i , ... , riots, 1811. 

the machines to pieces, tore down the mills, and even 
attacked their owners. The ringleaders were arrested 
and punished for breach of the law, the machines were 
replaced, and men were finally forced to realize that 
the factory had come to stay. 

Trades-unions. — Finding open resistance danger- 
ous, the laborers formed secret associations for the 
purpose of protesting in a body against long hours, 
overwork, and low wages. The manufacturers Mary Barton, 
appealed to Parliament and secured a law declaring Gaskeii. 
such unions illegal. Persons found conspiring to 



396 



The Great War with France 



Shirley, by 

Charlotte 

Bronte. 



Repeal of the 
Coalition 
Act, 1824. 



The people 
without 
voice in the 
government. 



raise the rate of wages or to reduce the hours of 
work, were condemned to jail and hard labor. 

Embittered by poverty and by the feeling that the 
government was on the side of the masters, the 
laborers defied the law. All the men in a cotton mill 
or a coal mine would agree to quit work until their 
pay was raised. The strike was of no use if other 
men immediately took their places. In the effort to 
prevent the masters from getting non-union men to 
work at the old wages, the union often had resort 
to force. Men were injured, even killed, because they 
would not obey the decrees of the unions. The gov- 
ernment attempted to keep order, but in vain. 
Finally statesmen became convinced that it would be 
better to regulate the trades-unions than to attempt 
to prohibit them, and the law against combinations 
was repealed. 

The Radicals. — Meantime another set -of men, 
wiser than the unionists, was seeking to give the 
laborer a chance to have something to say in the 
making of the laws. All power was still in the hands 
of the upper classes. The House of Lords was made 
up of great landowners. Every county sent two 
members to the House of Commons, but these were 
chosen by the landowners of the district. In the 
towns the right of voting was limited to men of prop- 
erty, so that even in populous boroughs only a few 
thousand citizens took part in the elections. 

It was evident that until the people had represen- 
tatives in Parliament, their demands would be set 



The Demand for Reform 397 

aside. Thinking men questioned whether, after all, 
the French were not right in claiming for every man 
an equal influence in the government of his country. 
As the horror roused by the cruel deeds of the revo- 
lutionists passed by, Englishmen began to see that 
their own constitution might be improved. 

Mass Meetings. — The Radicals (so called because 
they proposed to go to the root of the difficulty) 
could find no better way of forcing the government 
to attend to their demands than by calling mass 
meetings of the unrepresented people to listen to 
violent speeches and to draw up fiery resolutions. The 
Cabinet, made up of bigoted Tories, with Wellington 
Master General of the Ordnance, took alarm lest 
the French Revolution should be repeated in English 
cities, and declared such meetings against the law. 
A convention of Radicals had been called at Man- The Man- 
chester. Some thirty thousand people gathered at maS sacre, 
St. Peter's Field to listen to a radical orator and l8lQ ' 
to go through the form of electing a representative. 
Wellington sent troops to break up the meeting. 
They fired upon the mob, and seventy persons were 
killed. This massacre of innocent people awakened 
great indignation, and men called the Duke's inglori- 
ous victory the battle of Peterloo. 

Far from being discouraged by opposition, the 
Radicals continued to agitate for manhood suffrage 
and equal representation. They established news- 
papers for the purpose of educating England in the 
way of reform. Men could read these at their own 
firesides without danger of interference. 



398 



The Great War with France 



Death of 
George III. 



Abolition of 
religious 
tests, 1828. 



In 1820 George III died. He had taken no active 
part in politics for twenty years, but his purpose 
of making the government superior to influence from 
the people had been, with the exception of one year 
when Grenville and Fox were in power, the ruling 
motive with every prime minister since Pitt. 

George IV (1820-1830). — George IV had been a 
Whig while Prince of Wales, but once on the throne, 
he proved as bigoted a Tory as his father, and there 
seemed little prospect of reform. The House of 
Commons was, however, better aware of popular 
feeling than the king and his ministers, and was 
ready to make certain changes. The laws forbidding 
Dissenters to hold office under the government or to 
enter the universities were repealed. Jews were ad- 
mitted to Parliament. The Irish people protested vig- 
orously against Catholic disabilities and elected their 
great orator, O'Connell, to the House of Commons. 
Then Wellington, fearing that agitation might end in 
revolt, advised the repeal of the Test Act. Thus the 
reform that Pitt had urged was finally carried through. 



Section 6. The Beginning of Reform 



The people 
secure repre- 
sentation. 



Meantime the people were reading the Radical 
tracts and papers, and were coming to understand 
that many of their wrongs might be set right if only 
the men sent to the House of Commons to make the 
laws could be such as cared for the interests of the 
poor. In 1830 another revolution broke out in 



The Beginning of Reform 399 

France. The brother of Louis XVI was driven from 
the throne, and the people were given a much larger 
share in the government. These things had great in- 
fluence in England even with the propertied classes. 

William IV (1830-1837). — George IV died in 1830, 
and was succeeded by his brother William IV, a 
man of more liberal views. In the elections held 
directly after the death of the king, many men 
were sent to Parliament who, though not Radicals, 
believed that some reforms might safely be under- 
taken. The first result of the new spirit in the 
House of Commons was the Reform Act of 1832. 
The right of electing members was taken away 
from fifty-six rotten boroughs, and this privilege Rotten 

, . . 1 .l 1 1 1 boroughs dis- 

was given to thirty-nine towns that had never been franchised. 
allowed representation. At the same time, the 
right of voting was given to a much larger number 
of citizens. The property requirement was not 
abolished, but it was considerably reduced. The 
members from the factory towns united with the 
more progressive section of the Whigs to form a new 
party and called themselves Liberals. The Tories, 
looked upon as the defenders of a time-honored con- 
stitution, were known as Conservatives. 

Protection of Women and Child Laborers. — The 
reformers made the most of their new opportunity. 
The sufferings of the children employed in the cot- 
ton mills were reported to Parliament, and a law was 
passed prohibiting factory work for a child under The Factory 
nine years of age. Children between nine and thir- 



400 The Great War with France 

teen years might be employed but eight hours a day. 
No women or children might work in the factories 
at night. A later law required that factory children 
should attend school, and another limited the work- 
ing day for all women and children engaged in indoor 
labor to ten hours. 

The attention of the country was next called to the 
evils suffered by the women and boys at work in the 
coal mines. England was horrified when the truth 
became known, and demanded that the well-being of 
women and boys should no longer be sacrificed for 
The Mines the profit of mine owners. The Mines Act forbade 
the employment of women and children under- 
ground. Work at the pit's mouth was still allowed, 
but this was not dangerous, since there was plenty 
of air and sunlight. 

The Emancipation of the Slaves. — A remedial meas- 
ure to which there was far less opposition was carried 
by the reformed Parliament. Slavery had passed 
away in England with the Norman Conquest, but ever 
since the sixteenth century, the merchants of Bristol 
and Liverpool had been buying blacks on the Afri- 
can coast and carrying them to the new world for 
sale. No one thought of the negroes as human 
beings or protested against this cruel trade, until 
toward the end of the eighteenth century, William 
Clarkson undertook to learn the truth about it. He 
visited the wharves where the slave ships came in, 
and asked many questions of the sailors. He 
learned how the poor wild creatures were crowded 






The Beginning of Reform 401 

together between decks, and how, when they fell ill 
because of bad air, poor food, and hard usage, they 
were thrown overboard like so many animals. Eng- 
land was shocked by Clarkson's tale of horror. Pitt 
became interested in his cause, and hoped to induce 
Parliament to abolish the slave-trade. But the men 
who were making money in the business, the Abolition of 
brothers of the king among them, bitterly opposed ^0^1807. 
the bill, and it failed. Not till the year after Pitt's 
death was this reform finally carried through. 

England was rid of the slave-trade at last, but not 
yet of responsibility for slavery. Slaves were still 
held in the British colonies, especially in tropical 
islands like Bermuda, Jamaica, and the Bahamas, 
where no other labor was to be had. The reformers, 
William Wilberforce at their head, attacked this evil 
and urged that the slaves be set free. The planters 
protested that emancipation would ruin the coffee 
and sugar industries, but they had no representatives 
in Parliament, and the bill became law in spite of 
them. By the Act of Emancipation, the British gov- Act of Eman. 
ernment agreed to pay the planters the money value 1833. 
of the slaves set free. 



Books for Study 

Tancock, England during the A7nerican and European Wars. 
Rosebery, Pitt. 

Cheyney, Industrial and Social History of England, Ch. VIII 
and IX. 

Lawless, History of Ireland. 



402 The Great War with France 



Suggestive Questions 

Section i. — Compare and contrast the two Pitts. 

Section 2. — Why did England go to war with France ? What 
did the navy do for England ? Why did the union of England 
and Ireland seem necessary in 1800 ? 

Section 3. — Compare Napoleon's attempt to invade Britain 
with Caesar's invasion. Account for England's part in the 
Peninsular War. State causes and results of the American 
War. 

Section 4. — Why was bread dear in England after 18 15 ? 
Why were wages low ? What are the good effects of modern 
machinery ? How does it work harm ? 

Section 5. — How did the workingmen hope to improve their 
own condition ? What method was proposed by the Radicals ? 
What was the effect of abolishing religious tests ? 

Section 6. — What new influence was brought to bear on 
legislation by the Reform Act of 1832 ? What reform laws were 
passed in consequence ? 

Special Topics 

Warren Hastings : Lyall, Warren Hastings. 
Admiral Nelson: Clark Russell, Nelson. 
Stephenson : Smiles, Life of George Stephenson. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE TRIUMPH OF DEMOCRACY 

Make no more giants, God, 

But elevate the race at once ! We ask 

To put forth just our strength, our human strength, 

All starting fairly, all equipped alike, 

Gifted alike, all eagle-eyed, true-hearted. 

— Robert Browning, Paracelsus. 

Section i. The New Era 

The men admitted to a share in the government 
by the Reform Act of 1832 were, for the most part, 
the manufacturers, mine owners, and merchants of 
the newly enfranchised towns. They were glad to do 
whatever might be done to better the lot of the work- 
ing classes so long as their own interests were not 
threatened. Few among them would have thought 
it wise or safe to entrust the people with political 
power. The laborers, however, were growing prosper- 
ous. They were earning better wages and getting 
more constant employment. They were gaining 
in intelligence, too, and coming to know more of 
what was going on in the world. The railways made 
it easier to go about the country, and the new postal 
service carried letters and newspapers to the remot- 
est corners of the kingdom at very slight cost. The 

403 



404 



The Triumph of Democracy 



The penny 
post, 1840. 



First public 
school grant. 



Death of 
William IV, 
1837. 



charge had been one, two, or three shillings, accord- 
ing to the distance sent. When postage stamps 
were introduced, the price was reduced to one penny, 
and people began to send letters with little thought 
of expense. About the same time the government 
undertook to assist in providing schools for the chil- 
dren of the poor. As workingmen began to think 
to better purpose, they saw that the Radicals were 
right in holding that it was important to have some 
influence in the making of the laws. The popular 
demand for the ballot was resisted for a time by the 
men who dreaded change, but the rights of the people 
could not be permanently overlooked. 

Accession of Queen Victoria. — When William IV 
died, there was no male heir to the throne, and Vic- 
toria, daughter of the Duke of Kent, was declared 
queen. 1 She was only eighteen years of age, but she 
had been carefully trained for her responsible posi- 
tion. It was no longer possible for an English sov- 
ereign to interfere in legislation, or to withstand 



1 George III. 1 760-1820. 
I 



George IV. William IV. Edward, Duke of Kent. 

1820-1830. 1830-1837. I died 1820. 

Victoria m. Albert of Coburg and Goth; 
1837-1901. 

Edward VII. 1901 + 

George, Duke of York. 

Edward Albert. 



TJic New Era 



405 



a policy approved by a parliamentary majority, but 
the queen could and did do much to further the 
efforts of statesmen whom she believed to be working 
for the best good of England. Her devotion to the 
well-being of the people, and her eagerness to know 
and understand their needs won for her the confi- 




CORONATION OF QUEEN VICTORIA, 1838. 

dence of all parties. She soon had opportunity to 
use her influence to secure cheap bread for the poor. 
Repeal of the Corn Laws (1846). — Richard Cob- 
den, John Bright, and other Radicals had been 
agitating against the selfish policy of restricting 
the importation of grain. The landowners and 
farmers were getting good prices for their crops, 



406 



The Triumph of Democracy 



The Irish 
famine. 



The Black 
Prophet, by 
Carleton. 



and they feared the effects of American competi- 
tion, but the manufacturing towns wanted cheaper 
food and fought against the import duties. It was a 
tug of war between the country and the towns. The 
landlords were still so strong in Parliament that the 
law might have been maintained in spite of public 
protest but for the Irish famine. 

The peasants of Ireland, always poor, had gone 
from bad to worse since the Union. Rents were 
high, and wages low. The failure of the potato crop 
in 1845 plunged the whole population into want. 
Four million people were reduced to the point of 
starvation, and thousands died of hunger. It was 
impossible for them to buy food when grain was so 
dear. Parliament was forced to remove the restric- 
tions and to allow all grains to enter the ports free of 
duty. Since then, Britain's food supply has come 
largely from America, and bread is as cheap in Lon- 
don as in the United States. The English farmer can 
no longer get the old prices for his products and has 
grown poor in consequence. Rents have fallen, and 
some of the land is no longer cultivated. The agri- 
cultural laborer suffers because work is scarce and 
wages low, but the great majority of British subjects 
are still unwilling to levy any tax on grain. 



Section 2. The Winning of the Ballot 



The Chartists. — These reforms were wise and in 
the right direction, but the people were not yet satis- 



The Winning of tlie Ballot 4° 7 

fied. The workingmen, especially, felt that their 
interests would not receive proper attention until 
they could elect representatives to the House of 
Commons. A labor party had been organized, which 
adopted the principles of the Radical party but pro- 
posed to carry them further. The Chartists hoped to 
induce Parliament to grant a People's Charter that The People's 
should give every man a voice in the government. 
The "six points" of the charter stipulated (i) that a 
new House of Commons should be elected each 
year ; (2) that every adult citizen should have a vote 
whether he owned property or not; (3) that the vote 
should be taken by ballot and not by shouts of aye 
and no, as hitherto ; (4) that the country should be 
divided into districts containing an equal number of 
inhabitants, and that every district should elect one 
representative; (5) that membership in the House of 
Commons should no longer be limited to men of 
property ; (6) that every member should be paid a 
salary for his term of service. 

Doubtless the Chartists indulged in extravagant 
hopes of what these reforms would accomplish. 
" Manhood suffrage," said one of their orators, 
" manhood suffrage means that every workingman 
in the land has a right to a good coat, a good roof, 
a good dinner, no more work than will keep him in 
health, and as much wages as will keep him in 
plenty." The men of wealth, on the other hand, 
had an exaggerated fear of what the people might 
do if they once got the power into their own hands. 



408 



The Triumph of Democracy 



The popular demands sounded too much like those 
of the republicans of France. 

The Demonstration of 1848. — For a time the Char- 
tists contented themselves with holding great conven- 
tions and sending monster petitions to the House of 
Commons. Finally, in the year 1 848, a revolution broke 



ilton Locke \ 
y Charles 
Kingsley. 




Housks or Parliament. 

out in Paris, where the people dethroned the king and 
gained complete control of the government. Excited 
by the success of the French, the Chartists resolved 
on a decisive step. Their leader, Feargus O'Connor, 
proposed that the agitators should march to the 
House ot Commons and present a petition that the 
charter might be granted immediately. 



The Winning of the Ballot 409 

The Londoners were greatly alarmed. O'Connor 
had announced that five hundred thousand men would 
gather at Kennington Common on the south bank of 
the Thames and escort the petition, an enormous roll 
of parchment signed by five million persons, to the 
bar of the House of Commons. It was to be such a 
conquest of London as the peasants had made under 
Richard II. The government, however, was pre- 
pared. The Duke of Wellington had charge of the 
defence of the city. The bridges across the river 
were well guarded, and the streets leading to West- 
minster were lined with troops. Alarmed by this 
show of force, only twenty-five thousand of the 
boldest of the Chartists dared assemble on the Com- 
mon, and they were undecided and unwilling to risk 
violent measures. At the last, O'Connor was per- 
suaded to go alone to the House of Commons, riding 
in a hired cab, with the petition on the box. The 
famous document proved to be largely sham. There 
were but two million signatures in all, and many of 
these were false ones. Jokers had signed the names 
t>f the Duke of Wellington, the Prince of Wales, and 
others quite as unlikely. 

So the great demonstration ended in ridicule, and coiiapseot 

i ^., . ^o, the move- 

the Chartist party went to pieces. The six points ment. 
seemed to be hopelessly lost. But the defeat was 
only temporary. When the first anxiety and excite- 
ment were past, men began to see that what 
had been asked for was not so unreasonable after 
all. 



4io 



The Triumph of Democracy 



The Crimean War (1854-1 856).— Lord Palmerston, 
the political leader who came to power with the 
accession of Queen Victoria, had little sympathy with 




100 200 300 400 500 

Map of the Turkish Empire. 



SCALE OF MILES 



popular reforms. He was eager to push British in- 
terests abroad, and his daring projects soon involved 
the nation in a bloody war. The most direct routes 



The Crimean War 411 

to India were controlled by the Sultan of Turkey, 
whose dominions included the Balkan Peninsula, Asia 
Minor, Syria, and Egypt. The Turkish government 
was corrupt but weak, and England could readily 
bring sufficient pressure to bear for the protection of 
her Oriental interests. 

Russia had for centuries desired to get possession 
of Constantinople, and no one was surprised when Ambition of 

F U SSI 3. 

the Czar, Nicholas I, announced that the time had 
come when the rule of the Turk should cease and 
his dominions be divided among the civilized powers. 
"We have on our hands," he said, "a sick man, a 
very sick man ; it will be a great misfortune if one 
of these days he should slip away from us before the 
necessary arrangements have been made." Nicolas 
proposed that Russia and Austria should share Tur- 
key in Europe, while England should take Crete and 
Egypt. It seemed a fair offer, but England dis- 
trusted the Czar and preferred that a weak rather 
than a strong power should be in control of Constan- 
tinople and the trade routes. The emperor of France, 
Napoleon III, was of the same mind. 

When the Russian squadron in the Black Sea fell 
upon the Turkish fleet and destroyed it, the two 
western powers thought the time had come to inter- 
fere. A combined French and English fleet sailed 
through the Bosphorus and drove the Russians into 
their fortified harbor of Sebastopol. An army of siege of 
fifty thousand men was immediately sent to raze the 
fortifications so as to bring the Czar to terms. The 



412 



The Tiiumph of Democracy 



Rule of the 
East India 
Company. 



On the Face 
of the 
Waters, by 
Mrs. Steele. 



place was defended with stubborn courage, and there 
was frightful loss of life on both sides. After eleven 
months of desperate fighting, the fortress surren- 
dered, and the Czar was ready to agree to terms of 
peace. Russia abandoned her claims to Turkish 
territory, and the Sultan was restored to power. 

The Sepoy Mutiny (1857). — During the first half 
of the nineteenth century, the East India Company 
had pushed its conquests and annexed one after an- 
other of the native states, until the whole peninsula 
from the Ganges to the Indus was brought under the 
British crown. Railways were built connecting the 
ports with the interior, telegraph lines were carried 
through the country, and its rich resources were 
brought within reach of English trade. But the 
prejudices of the natives were contemptuously 
ignored. Hindoos were forced to serve in the 
British army, and were even sent oversea to fight 
the battles of England in Burmah and in China. 
The people grew restless and resentful. They 
cherished a tradition that the rule of the East India 
Company would last only one hundred years, and 
eagerly awaited the centennial anniversary of the 
battle of Plassey. 

The spark that set flame to this smouldering dis- 
content was the rumor that the native troops were 
to be forced to accept Christianity. On May 7, 1857, 
the Sepoys mutinied, slew their English officers, and 
declared the aged Mogul prince to be emperor of 
India. Within a few days they got possession of 



The Sepoy Mutiny 413 

Delhi, the ancient capital, and other principal towns siegeof 
of the interior. Many of the English residents were toSeJtem-* 
massacred. Not even the women and children ber2 °- 
escaped the fury of the frenzied natives. The gov- 
ernment, taken by surprise, was utterly unable to 
check the revolt until reinforcements were sent from 
England. Then superior discipline and generalship 
began to tell. Delhi was taken after a three months' 
siege, the poor emperor of India was made prisoner, 
and his sons and principal adherents were shot. 
The exasperated English dealt out terrible punish- 
ment to the rebels. 

Reform. — The revolt finally suppressed, steps were 
taken to reform the government. The East India 
Company was abolished, and India was brought under 
the direct administration of the Crown. The queen 
was proclaimed Empress of India in 1878. It was 
not thought wise to give a people so ignorant of 
European ideas a representative legislature. The 
government was intrusted to English officials who 
are expected to do what they can to better the con- 
dition of the people. Great attention is given to 
agricultural improvement. Swamps are drained, 
jungles are cleared, and desert regions are made 
fertile by irrigation. The means of internal trans- 
portation have been increased, so that grain may be 
carried to the districts where it is needed. Not all 
these precautions have been sufficient to prevent 
disastrous famines. A general failure of crops, such 
as occurred in 1897, brings millions of people to the 



414 The Triumph of Democracy 

verge of starvation and forces the government to 
provide whole provinces with food. Discontent is 
rife, and the better educated natives are demanding 
representative government. A repetition of the 
Sepoy rebellion is apprehended. 

The Alabama Claims. — The American Civil War 
( 1 861-1865) proved a serious blow to the English 
cotton manufacturers, because the bulk of their raw 
material came from the Southern States. Many 
mills were closed and thousands of operatives were 
reduced to beggary. Most Englishmen, Lord Palm- 
erston among them, sympathized with the Con- 
federacy, and the government, though pledged to 
neutrality, allowed Southern cruisers to be fitted out 
in British ports. When Mason and Slidell, confed- 
erate envoys, were captured on board a British 
packet, Palmerston demanded their surrender, and 
President Lincoln, in spite of vehement protests 
from his countrymen, acknowledged the justice of 
this claim. When, on the other hand, the United 
States government demanded compensation for the 
damage wrought to American shipping by the Ala- 
bama, one of the cruisers supplied by an English 
firm, the question was submitted to arbitration, and 
Great Britain paid the heavy money award deter- 
mined on. 

New Times and New Leaders. — Lord Palmerston 
died in 1865 and with him passed the generation of 
men who regarded foreign affairs as the prime 
interest of a statesman. Problems of social and 



New Times and New Leaders 



415 



political reform were again forcing their way to the 
front and demanding the attention of the House of 
Commons. For the past forty years the energies 




William E. Gladstone. 



of all parties have been concentrated on domestic 
legislation. 

Two great statesmen, Gladstone, leader of the 



416 



The Triumph of Democracy 



William 

Ewart 

Gladstone. 



Benjamin 
Disraeli. 



Liberal party, and Disraeli, leader of the Conserva- 
tives, came forward on the death of Palmerston and 
shaped the course of English history for the next 
thirty years. Gladstone entered upon political life 
in 1832. He was sent to the House of Commons 
by the Duke of Newcastle, who owned one of the 
few pocket boroughs that survived the Reform Act. 
As representative of a wealthy landowner, his sym- 
pathies were at first with the Tories, and he disap- 
proved the emancipation of the slaves and the grants 
to public schools. In 1852, however, he joined the 
Liberal party, and thenceforth worked with his whole 
soul for the extension of the suffrage and the educa- 
tion of the people. Disraeli, the Conservative leader, 
was an ardent believer in strong government. He 
held that it was wiser and safer to make benevolent 
laws for the people than to give them a voice in 
legislation. His political influence was due not so 
much to devotion to any great cause, as to his keen 
wit and winning manner and to his brilliant conduct 
of foreign affairs. The people called him Dizzy, 
thinking perhaps of his daring and versatile temper. 
Extension of the Suffrage. — Gladstone brought for- 
ward a reform bill in 1866, proposing to reduce the 
property qualification and so to increase the number 
of voters, but the measure was defeated. The advocate 
of popular government did not lose faith in his cause. 
" You cannot fight against the future," said he to the 
Conservatives. "Time is on our side." His words 
were soon verified. The unrepresented citizens gave 



The Winning of the Ballot 417 

expression to their disappointment and displeasure 
by monster demonstrations in London and other 
great towns, and popular disappointment not infre- 
quently resulted in riots. The Conservatives dared 
no longer resist the will of the people, and Disraeli 
himself brought in the bill that finally became law. 
In the towns, the right to vote was given to every man Reform Act 
who owned a house or rented lodgings worth ten 
pounds a year. In the county elections, the suffrage 
was still restricted to men who owned or rented land. 

Public Schools. — The older Conservatives were 
anxious as to the result of admitting the people to a 
share in the government, and spoke of the measure 
as a " leap in the dark." " Now," said Robert Lowe, 
who had opposed the bill, "we must educate our 
masters." The suggestion was a wise one. School- 
ing had hitherto been regarded in England as a privi- 
lege reserved to those who could pay for it. Hardly 
four men out of five could read or even sign their 
own names. Both parties came to see that it would Board 
not do to leave the voters in ignorance, and finally ^i. 
Parliament provided that every child in the United 
Kingdom should have at least a primary school 
education. 

The Ballot given to the Agricultural Laborer (1884). 
— There remained one class of men, and that the 
most numerous, who had not yet secured representa- 
tion in the House of Commons. Landless peasants 
were not allowed to vote. The agricultural laborer 
was usually less intelligent than the workman of 



4i8 



The Triumph of Democracy 



the towns, but he was no less interested in securing 
laws to his liking. The Liberals had confidence in 
his common sense. "We," said Gladstone, " are firm 
in the faith that enfranchisement is good, that the 




The House of Commons in Session. 



people may be trusted." At the first opportunity he 
brought the needs of the agricultural laborers before 
Parliament, and, in spite of Conservative opposition, 
carried through a bill giving the suffrage to the rural 
districts on the same terms as to the towns. When the 
field hands won the right to vote, manhood suffrage, 
the hope of the Chartists, was practically attained. 
The People's Charter Won. — In the following year 



Irish Legislation A l 9 



l «^> 



another of the six points of the charter was secured. 
The kingdom was divided into electoral districts con- 
taining from fifty thousand to sixty thousand voters 
each. Every such district was entitled to send one 
member to the House of Commons. Voting by secret Secre ,_ ^ , 
ballot had already been provided. The property re- 1872. 
quirement for a seat in the House of Commons was 
abolished in 1858, but the government does not yet 
pay salaries to its legislators. Poor men can serve as 
representatives only when the voters who elect them 
meet their expenses. 

> Irish Legislation. — No sooner were the Roman 
Catholics fully represented in the British Parliament 
than a systematic agitation for redress of grievances 
was begun. The Irish members in the House of 
Commons were but a small minority, but they were 
in deadly earnest. In season and out of season they 
urged Ireland's wrongs, until English statesmen were 
obliged to take heed. The majority of the popula- 
tion were poor peasants who owned no land but 
rented their farms of the great landowners. These 
were for the most part English gentlemen who rarely 
visited their Irish estates and knew little of the 
actual condition of their tenants. Rents were far Rack rents, 
higher than in England, and they were collected by 
agents who sometimes resorted to cruel means to 
extort payment. Men were not infrequently turned Evictions, 
out of their homes because they were unable to get 
together money for the rent when it fell due. The 
evicted families had no means of support, and were 



420 



The Tfiumph of Democracy 



Valentine 
McClutchy, 
by Carleton. 



Tithes. 



Disestablish- 
ment of Irish 
Church, 1869. 



The Ulster 
right legal- 
ized, 1870. 



Land Pur- 
chase Act, 
1885. 



usually sent to the poorhouse. Parliament interfered 
with the cruel practice only so far as to prohibit 
evictions on Christmas Day and Good Friday and 
to forbid the agent to pull off the roof while the 
family was in the house. The peasant had to pay, 
besides rent to his landlord, taxes to the government 
and tithes for the support of the Protestant Church. 
The triple burden was more than he could bear. 
The little strip of ground allowed him could not 
produce enough to meet these obligations and to 
feed his family as well. The people were obliged 
to live on potatoes, the cheapest food that could 
be grown in their damp climate. 

Gladstone believed that the will of the people 
should be law in Ireland as well as in England. He 
succeeded in inducing Parliament to legislate that 
tithes might no longer be collected from the people. 
Soon after he secured a land law intended to protect 
the peasant against oppression. A tenant might not 
be evicted so long as he paid a fair rent for his 
farm, and, if he gave up the land, full compensation 
was to be made him by the landlord for all im- 
provements he had put upon the place. The law, 
however, had to be enforced in the courts, and most 
of the peasants were too poor to meet the costs of 
a trial. An attempt to assist the Irish people to 
buy little farms was made in 1885, but it proved 
ineffective. 

Home Rule. — Finally, Parnell and other Irish 
leaders came to the conclusion that the British 



Home Rule A 21 

Parliament could not be expected to give full jus- 
tice to the Irish peasant when his interests came 
into conflict with those of an English landlord. 
They demanded the restoration of home rule. Ire- 
land, they believed, should have a parliament of 
her own, intrusted with the power of legislating 
for all Irish interests. The proposal met with little 
favor in England. Disraeli declared that home rule 
was " scarcely less disastrous than pestilence and 

famine." 

Gladstone, however, urged the recognition of 
Ireland's claim to self-government as the only means 
to establish harmonious relations between the two 
countries. Twice he submitted a home rule bill to Home Rule 

. Bills, looO, 

the House of Commons, and twice he was beaten. l892 . 
When he retired from private life in 1894, the 
Liberal party had no leaders left who cared to press 
the plan, and it was abandoned. 

Reaction.— The defeat of the first home rule bill 
was a heavy blow to the Liberal Party. In 1886 the 
Conservatives secured a majority in the House of 
Commons, and with the exception of a brief interval 
(1892-94) they held control of the government for 
twenty years. Lord Salisbury's Cabinet undertook 
to "kill home rule with kindness." An Irish par- 
liament was deemed out of the question, but local 
self-government in parish and county councils was 
conceded. Gladstone's plan for enabling the Irish 
peasant to purchase land was carried into effect in 
the Land Purchase Act. The government under- 



422 



The Triumph of Democracy 



Land Pur- took to advance money to would-be purchasers on 
1903* ° ' condition that the loan be repaid in annual instal- 
ments. By this process Irish farmers are rapidly 
getting full possession of the lands on which they 
have been paying rent for generations past. 

Remedial legislation demanded by the English 
laborers did not fare so well. Ambition to further 
Britain's colonial interests led the Conservatives to 
neglect domestic reforms and ultimately involved the 
country in a costly war. 

The South African War, 1 899-1 901. — Britain's pos- 
sessions at the Cape of Good Hope, acquired by the 
Treaty of Vienna, did not attract much attention 
until the discovery of gold mines and diamond fields 
gave prospect of rapid wealth. The English pros- 
pectors who poured into the country quickly came into 
conflict with the Dutch colonists. These were farm- 
ers and ranchmen, very tenacious of their rights and 
naturally jealous of the privileges claimed by the 
foreigners. On various pretexts, the English govern- 
ment succeeded in annexing one Dutch settlement 
after another until the Transvaal was reached. There 
the Boers made their final stand. In 1881 these 
" embattled farmers" drove out the English garrisons 
and asserted their independence of Great Britain. 
The Pretoria Gladstone, who was then prime minister, refused to 
prosecute the war and concluded a treaty with the 
Boers, acknowledging their right to self-government. 
The concession was bitterly denounced by the Con- 
servatives as cowardly and unpatriotic. 



Convention. 




GRAVED BY BOflMAY 4 CO..N.Y. 




Queen Victoria and her Great-grandson, 
Prince Edward Albert. 



Edward \ II 423 

The Convention did not bring peace, for the 
original difficulties remained. -The Transvaal gov- 
ernment and the mining companies were frequently 
at odds, and Jameson's Raid brought them into open Jameson's 
conflict. The Boers made a plucky fight, but they 
were too few to stand long against the enormous 
armies sent to subdue them. Great Britain succeeded 
in conquering the mountain republic, but it was a 
dear-bought victory. Thousands of lives and vast 
sums of money were spent in a war that meant 
neither glory nor permanent success. Parliament 
was obliged, in all justice, to confer representative 
government on the conquered republic. In the Transvaal 
recent elections, both Dutch and English residents I9 oo! 0nS ' 
voted against the candidates put up by the mining 
interest. The result was a signal victory for the 
Boers. General Botha, one of the most brilliant of 
the Boer commanders and the last to surrender, is 
the first prime minister of the British Transvaal. 

Edward VII (1901-). — In the dawn of the twentieth 
century, Queen Victoria passed away. Her long 
reign of sixty-three years was the most progressive 
England had ever known. Much of this prosperity 
was due to the influence of the wise and good queen, 
but even more to the labors of the able statesmen 
who ruled the British Empire in her name. She 
was succeeded by her eldest son under the title of 
Edward VII. Tactful, gracious, and a lover of 
peace, the new sovereign has shown a keen sense 
of the constitutional limits of royal authority and 



424 The Triumph of Democracy 

much practical good sense in meeting political diffi- 
culties. It is quite evident that he could reign on 
no other terms. The function of king has come to 
be that of friendly adviser who arbitrates the differ- 
ences of rival parties and party leaders. King 
Edward is credited with having furthered the nego- 
tiations that brought the South African War to an 
end. 

The Liberal Victory of 1906. — Disapproval of the 
war and discontent occasioned by its mismanage- 
ment, had brought the Conservative party into dis- 
Education repute. Its advocacy of public aid to denominational 
schools proved its ruin. In the elections of 1906 
the Liberals secured an overwhelming majority in 
the House of Commons. Beside 375 Liberals re- 
turned, there were 83 Irish Nationalists and 53 mem- 
bers of the Independent Labour Party. The advent 
of this large body of working-class representatives 
has been justly regarded as the most significant fea- 
ture of the elections. It marks a shifting of the bal- 
ance of power no less important than that resulting 
from the Reform Act of 1832. The English laborer 
has finally succeeded in attaining real influence in 
the House of Commons. 

Campbell-Bannerman, the Liberal prime minister, 
has a difficult task before him. To maintain a work- 
ing majority, he must propose measures that will 
satisfy the Irish and Labour members without, at the 
same time, alienating too many of his own party. 
John Burns, the ablest of the Labour leaders, was 



Evolution of Responsible Government 425 

appointed President of the Local Government Board, 
a position in which much may be done for the laborers 
and the unemployed. Laws guaranteeing the immu- 
nity of trade-union funds and extending the principle 
of compensation for accidents have been passed, in 
spite of middle-class opposition. A lid for the sup- 
port of Home Rulers was less successful. The 
proposition for an Irish Council, in part elective and 
in part appointed by the Crown and exercising 
merely administrative authority, has been rejected 
by the Nationalists as affording no adequate substi- 
tute for home rule. 

Section 3. Evolution of Responsible Government 

George III was the last of English monarchs to 
attempt arbitrary rule. Since his failure, the gov- 
ernment of Great Britain has grown more and more 
democratic, until to-day the will of the people is ex- 
pressed in public policy quite as clearly in this mon- 
archy as in a republic such as France or the United 
States. Without violence, by the slow and cautious 
methods characteristic of the English people, the 
British constitution has been transformed. Greater 
legislative changes were brought about in the last 
eighty years of the nineteenth century than in the 
corresponding portion of the seventeenth. The 
leaven at work in English politics throughout this influence or 
period was the theory of the rights of man, voiced by Democracy. 
the French philosophers and translated into definite 



426 The Triumph of Democracy 

projects of reform by the Radicals and the Chartists. 
Example Quite as potent an influence, though less generally 
united states, recognized, was the example of the United States. 
The revolted colonies organized a republican govern- 
ment and succeeded in maintaining law and order 
without the aid of king, nobility, or established church. 
They, moreover, first among civilized peoples, offered 
complete religious freedom, gratuitous primary educa- 
tion, and land free of rent or other incumbrance to 
would-be farmers. The impression made on the 
mother country by the success of American institu- 
tions has been increasingly evident in legislation. 
Furthermore, the demand for civil and political 
privileges has grown more insistent as the unprivi- 
Demandsof leged classes have gained wealth and influence. As 

the Unrepre- , .. 

sented the extraordinary development in manufactures, 

mines, and commerce brought prosperity to regions 
hitherto poor and backward and fortunes to men of 
humble birth, the necessity of admitting the unrepre- 
sented to a share in the government became apparent. 
As miners and operatives and agricultural laborers 
secured better wages and attained a higher standard 
of living, they, too, demanded representation. 

The great initial achievement was the Reform Act 
of 1832. The demand for a truly representative 
government was so strong that Parliament was forced 
to reform itself. The new factory towns had protested 

Adequate against the antiquated system that allowed them but 

Representa- 
tion, two members, or none at all, in the House of Com- 
mons. They, together with the more prosperous 



Evolution of Responsible Government 427 

counties, were accorded the voting strength due to 
their wealth and population. The balance of power 
was thus transferred from the rural to the industrial 
districts. Some extension of the suffrage was con- 
ceded in the same act. The county franchise, hith- 
erto confined to land owners, was extended to tenant 
farmers paying an annual rental of ^50 or more, 
while the borough franchise, usually limited to 
property owners, was bestowed on all householders 
paying .£10 rental. The Reform Act of 1867 carried 
farther the redistribution of seats and extended the 
franchise to tenant farmers paying £\2 annual rental 
and to ^10 lodgers, as well as householders, in the 
town. Thus small farmers, artisans, and operatives 
secured the right to vote. The legislation of 1884 
and 1885 made representation still more nearly 
proportioned to population and extended the £>\o 
household and lodger franchise to the counties. 
This gave the agricultural laborers the ballot and 
rendered manhood suffrage well-nigh universal. One- 
sixth of the total population now takes part in a 
parliamentary election. The demands of the Chart- 
ists have been realized, not for England only, but for 
Ireland and Scotland as well. 1 

The standard of political integrity has risen since 
the days of Walpole and Newcastle. The words Political 
and deeds of public men are fully reported by the 
press, and popular interest in public affairs holds 

1 Of the 670 members now sitting in the House of Commons, 495 
represent England and Wales, 72 are Scotch, and 103 Irish members. 



428 



The Triumph of Democracy 



Reform of 
the Civil 
Service. 



House of 

Commons 

Dominant. 



men in responsible positions true to their trust. The 
bribing of legislators has ceased. No member con- 
victed of selling his influence can retain his seat in 
the House of Commons. Corruption of voters, by 
means direct or indirect, is severely punished. 
Every candidate is required to publish his campaign 
expenses in complete detail, so that undue use of 
money is readily challenged. Service to the party in 
power is no longer rewarded by government office. 
The spoils system, once the bane of English politics, 
has been clone away by the rigid examination of 
applicants for positions in the civil service. Public 
officers, whether high or low, are held in honor, and 
consequently the best men are ready to serve the 
state. As the House of Commons has come to rep- 
resent the people, its influence in legislation has 
steadily increased. It is to-day without question the 
dominant branch of the British legislature. Financial 
measures and all other important bills originate in 
the Lower House. 

The importance of the House of Lords has de- 
clined because its members represent the privileged 
classes. Some five hundred English peers sit in the 
Upper House by hereditary right, the Scotch peerage 
elects sixteen members, and the Irish twenty-eight. 
The two archbishops and twenty-four bishops of the 
English Church attend by virtue of office, while 
four law lords are appointed by the Crown to serve 
as the court of final appeal. While the total mem- 
bership of the House of Lords is close on six hun- 



Evolution of Responsible Government 429 

dred, 1 it is but sparsely attended, except when some 
measure affecting class interest arises. During this 
period when the House of Commons was becoming 
popular and progressive, the Upper House has grown House of 
more and more conservative so that the Liberal influence, 
party commands but few votes in that body. The 
Lords have rarely rejected measures sent up from 
the Commons, because there was always a possibility 
that the Crown might swamp an adverse majority by 
creating a sufficient number of new peers. In recent 
years, however, the antagonism has grown acute. 
Two important measures that had passed the Lower 
House by large majorities 2 and were endorsed by the 
rank and file of the electors, were defeated by the 
House of Lords. On both occasions the indignation 
of the Liberal party was expressed in propositions to 
abolish the House of Lords or so to revise its consti- 
tution as to make it representative of the wisdom of 
the nation. It is probable that some plan will soon 
be adopted by which the powers of the Upper House 
shall be so curtailed that it can be no longer a 
menace to popular interests. 

The arbitrary authority of the sovereign is long 
since at an end. His right of veto has not been 
exercised since the reign of Anne. Moreover, no Power of 
party of the King's Friends now intrigues under his NoSfr 
guidance either in Parliament or in the Cabinet. 
Since 1832, the monarch's power to name his ministers 

1 Three constitutes a quorum in the House of Lords. 

2 The Home Rule Bill, 1894, and the Education Bill, 1906. 



430 The Triumph of Democracy 

is merely nominal. He must choose the statesmen 
who can control a majority in the House of Commons. 
Powers of The prime minister is first appointed, and he associ- 
g reat! e but ates with himself, as heads of the dozen or more 
confidence 111 state departments, men who are in harmony with his 
and C p™i°e nS P ouc y and wno nav e the confidence of the dominant 
party. Every member of the Cabinet must have a 
seat in Parliament, preferably in the Lower House. 
The ministers must stand together on any question 
of importance. They introduce or support all bills 
adopted by the Cabinet, and no measure not so en- 
dorsed has much chance of favorable consideration in 
the House. The ministers are expected to defend 
government measures against attack and to answer 
questions and criticisms brought forward by the 
Opposition. In case an important question is defeated 
in the House of Commons, or in case a resolution as- 
serting want of confidence is carried by the Opposi- 
tion, the Ministry is bound to resign. Only once since 
Pitt defied the Coalition majority, has a prime minister 
dared to break this unwritten law. He may, however, 
appeal from the Commons to the people, by dissolv- 
ing the House and calling for new elections. In case 
the result is favorable to his party, he remains in 
office ; if not, there is no other resort. Several times 
a prime minister so defeated has resigned office be- 
fore the new Parliament had been convened. The 
legal term of a Parliament is seven years, but the effect 
of frequent appeals has been to reduce the actual 
term to an average of four years. 




Edward VII 



Evolution of Responsible Government 431 

Not the central authorities only, but the local gov- 
ernments, have been rendered democratic in the course 
of the nineteenth century. Under the Municipal Municipal 
Corporations Acts of 1835 and 1883, the ancient town Reform - 
charters have been abolished, together with the ex- 
clusive privileges of the burgher class. The present 
town council is elected by all taxpayers and acts in 
the interest of all the people. Notable improvements 
in municipal housekeeping are the immediate result. 
The streets are better paved, cleaned, and lighted ; 
scientific drainage and pure water are provided ; 
parks, libraries, and museums are opened to the 
people ; unwholesome tenements are torn down and 
model dwellings substituted. The cost of such public 
works is sometimes protested by wealthy taxpayers, 
but the people are in control of the town govern- 
ments and their demand for civic improvement cannot 
well be resisted. The modern municipal councils 
have been notably honest and free from corruption, 
and their conclusions command respect. 

By the Local Government Acts of 1888 and 1894, Local seif- 
county and parish councils were inaugurated. The government - 
old-time authority of squire and parson is now in- 
trusted to elected bodies representing the interests 
of the people of the district. The effect has been 
to promote order and good feeling, especially in 
Ireland. 1 

Comparison of British and American Institutions. — 
The government of the United States was framed 

1 Local Government for Ireland Act, 1898. 



432 



The Triumph of Democracy 



Representa- 
tion less 
direct in 
the United 
States. 



by Englishmen, born and bred to English ideas. 
France and French ideas were very popular with 
the men who ratified the Constitution of 1787, while 
the political methods of the mother country were 
justly distrusted ; nevertheless American institutions 
were shaped, quite unconsciously, on the English 
model. The king reappears in the president of the 
United States, the House of Lords in the Senate, the 
Commons in our House of Representatives. During 
the nineteenth century, while the English government 
was growing rapidly democratic, ours has changed 
more slowly and in the opposite direction, so that, to- 
day, the will of the people is more directly expressed 
in the British Parliament than in our Congress. 

Both Commoners and Representatives are chosen 
by the people, but congressional elections are held 
at stated intervals, while the House of Commons is 
dissolved and new elections ordered whenever it 
becomes necessary to test public opinion on a 
question of moment. The result is regarded as a 
mandate which no Cabinet may ignore. The House 
of Lords reflects the interests of a wealthy aristoc- 
racy, but the United States Senate, elected for a 
six-years term by the state legislatures, is hardly 
more representative of the will of the people. Its 
right to reject a bill sent up from the House of 
Representatives remains unquestioned and is fre- 
quently exercised. 

The president of the United States has far more 
authority than the present king of England. His 



Comparison with American Institutions 433 

right of veto is in full force and may be set aside Executive 
only by a two-thirds majority of both Houses. By ^a^" 17 
his messages to Congress, the president may suggest 
subjects for consideration and often materially in- 
fluences the course of legislation. Directly or indi- 
rectly he appoints to all civil and military offices. 
With the assent of the Senate, he negotiates treaties 
with foreign states. These great powers are safely 
intrusted to our president because he is elected by 
the whole people and is ready to act in their interest. 
His policy is often more in accord with public 
opinion than that of either branch of Congress. 
His term, moreover, is Lhort, and he may be im- 
peached for failure to do his duty. A hereditary 
monarch is far more likely to be at variance with 
the will of the people. Our cabinet officers are 
appointed and dismissed by the president. His 
appointments must be ratified by the Senate, but 
though that body may reject the president's candi- 
date, it cannot nominate a substitute. The American 
cabinet, then, is not necessarily in harmony with the 
majority of the legislative assembly. Cabinet officers 
do not sit in either house and they have, therefore, 
no direct opportunity to explain or defend their 
policy. Congress and the Administration are not 
infrequently at odds. When it happens that the 
president's policy is not sustained by Congress or 
that he is supported by one house and opposed by Legislative 
the other, the legislative machinery comes to a stand- 
still and is only set in motion again after a series of 



434 The Triumph of Democracy 

difficult conferences. There is no provision in the Con- 
stitution of the United States for an immediate appeal 
No immediate to public opinion. The will of the people on the ques- 
the People, tion cannot be tested until the next elections are due. 
This enforced interval allows time for full considera- 
tion and discussion, and is, therefore, not always to be 
regretted. A measure that is hotly championed to-day 
may prove, after the lapse of a year or two, to be of 
little real importance. Our system of checks and 
balances necessitates deliberate action and is probably 
best suited to the impulsive American nation. A 
legislative system that immediately reflects the popu- 
lar will is safer in the hands of a conservative people 
like the English. 

The relations between Great Britain and the United 
States have grown more friendly with every decade 
since the Civil War. Quarrelsome questions have 
been forgotten in the growing recognition of our com- 
mon inheritance and of our opportunities for mutual 
helpfulness. The commercial relations of the two 
countries have become of paramount importance. 
Since the repeal of her import duties, England has 
purchased the bulk, of her food-stuffs, as well as the 
raw material of her great cotton industry, from the 
United States, and we in turn have depended upon 
the mother country for certain manufactured goods. 
The major part of our foreign trade is carried on in 
English vessels. There is no lack of opportunities 
for misunderstanding, however. The Monroe Doc- 
trine has proved a difficult issue. British statesmen 



Comparison with American Institutions 435 

resent our claim that the American continents are TheVene- 
not open to farther colonization, and Lord Salisbury dar/ Dispute, 
asserted England's right to push certain schemes for i8q6 - 
the aggrandizement of British Guiana. Our insistence 
that the question of the Venezuela boundary be sub- 
mitted to arbitration raised a storm of protest, but 
the point was finally yielded. England's claim to 
the Musquito Coast and to part proprietorship in an 
Isthmus canal has also been surrendered. In view 
of the successful adjustment of these controversies, 
there is good reason to hope that the two great 
peoples may agree upon a plan for international arbi- 
tration so that all future disputes may be settled by 
judicial award and_ never again_ b}^jvar. 

Suggestive Questions 

Section i. — Compare King Edward's idea of a monarch's 
position with that of George III. What effect had the repeal of 
the corn laws (1) upon the landlords? (2) upon the laborers of 
the towns ? (3) upon the agricultural laborers ? 

Section 2. — Show that each point in the Charter was essen- 
tial to government by the people. Why did the Chartists fail ? 
How were the six points finally secured ? What were the wrongs 
of Ireland in the days of O'Connell ? How far have they been 
set right ? 

Section 3. — What has been Britain's colonial policy since 
the American war ? Illustrate by the Transvaal. Compare her 
present colonial possessions with the territory she held in 1763. 

Books for Study- 
Oman, England in the Nineteenth Century. 
McCarthy, History of Our Own Times. 
Lawless, History of Ireland. 
Churchill, From London to Ladysmith. 
Russell, Life of Gladstone. 
Autobiography of foseph Arch. 



INDEX 



Act of Settlement, 327. 

Africa, 422-423. 

Agincourt, i54~i55- 

Agriculture, xvi, xxviii, 9, 194-195, 

39°- 
Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of, 347. 
Alfred, 18-19, 2I > 22-2 3> 2 7> 2 8- 
American colonies, 191, 245, 266, 

3 OI > 3°3, 3°5, 35 2 > 355"356- 
America, War of 181 2, 387-388. 
Amiens, peace of, 380. 
Angles, 8, 16. 

Anne Boleyn, 196-197, 199, 204. 
Anne, Queen, 315-318, 325-327, 

336. 
Armada, the Spanish, 237-240. 
Army, 21, 24, 71-72, 280, 282, 296. 
Arthur, King, 8. 
Arthur, Prince, 82-83. 
Artillery, 168-169, 180, 203. 
Ashdown, battle of, 20. 
Athelney, 23. 
Australia, 375. 
Austrian Succession, War of, 346- 

347- 

Ball, John, 134-135, 137, M*. 

Bannockburn, battle of, 111-112. 

Barnet, battle of, 172. 

Barons, their struggle for power, 54, 
56, 61, 62, 63, 64-65, 69-70, 72- 
73, 76, 87, 94, 97, 99, 162, 180. 

Becket, Thomas, 70, 74-75. 

Benevolences, 173, 182. 

Bible, the, translation of, 201-202. 

Bill of Rights, 321. 

Black Death, the, 119, 132. 

Blake, Admiral, 290, 293. 

Bloody Assizes, 312. 

Boer War, 422-424. 



Bosworth Field, battle of, 177. 
Botha, General, 423. 
Boyne, battle of the, 322. 
Braddock's defeat, 353. 
Bretigny, treaty of, 120. 
Britons, the, xxiii, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. 
Bronze Age, the, xxi-xxii. 
Bruce, Robert, 104, in. 
Bunker Hill, battle of, 369. 
Burke, Edmund, 369, 374, 377. 
Burns, John, 424-425. 

Cabinet, the, 337, 397. 

Cade's Rebellion, 159-160. 

Caesar, Julius, invasion of Britain, 

i-3, 3? 2 - 
Calais, siege of, 118, 121; loss of, 

221. 
Campbell-Bannerman, 424. 
Canada, 355, 357. 
Canute, 39-41. 
Caroline, Queen, 342, 345. 
Catherine of Aragon, 196-198. 
Catholics, the Roman, 224, 231-232, 

2 35, 2 3 6 , 2 3 8 > 2 54~ 2 55, 26z , a6 5, 

3°3, 3° 6 , 3°7, 3°8, 3°9, 3*3, 3*5 

381, 419-420. 
Cavaliers, the, 279, 281. 
Cave-dwellers, the, xvii-xix. 
Caxton, William, 174. 
Channel, the English, 1, 2, 6, 18, 24, 

69, 83, 121, 146, 317, 379, 383, 

384. 
Charles Edward Stuart, the Young 

Pretender, 348, 350. 
Charles I, 261, 275, 287-288, 309. 
Charles II, 288, 289, 290, 292, 296, 

297, 298. 
Charter, of Henry I, 62 ; of the 

serfs, 57; of the towns, 80; the 



11 



Index 



Great, 87-88, 90, 99; the people's, 

407, 409, 419- 
Chartists, 406-409, 416-417. 
Chaucer, Geoffrey, 125. 
Christianity, conversion to, n-12, 

40. 
Church, disestablishment of Irish, 

420. 
Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, 

3i7, 3 2 7, 33 I "333- 
Clergy, relation to state, 55-56, 73, 

85-86, 99. 
Clive, Robert, 352, 353, 357. 
Colonial Policy, 362-363, 365-366. 
Commerce, xvi, xxii, xxvi-xxvii, 32, 

126-127, 189-191, 234-235, 242, 

244-245, 292, 319. 
Commons, House of, 98-99, 122- 

123, 264, 265, 279-280, 290, 340- 

345. 3 6 5» 39 6 > 399. 407, 408, 415- 

416, 419, 421, 424, 428, 430, 432. 
Conservative Party, the, 399, 416, 

417, 421-422. 

Corn Law (of 181 5), 389; repeal of, 

405-406. 
Court of the Shire, 29-31, 56, 70-71. 
Court of the Star Chamber, 181, 

270. 
Covenanters, 272. 
Covenant, the national, 271. 
Cranmer,Thomas, 199, 207-208,220. 
Crecy, battle of, 11 5-1 17. 
Crimean War, 410-412. 
Cromwell, Oliver, 278, 282-284, 

289, 291-292, 294, 295, 298. 
Cromwell, Richard, 295. 
Cromwell, Thomas, 198, 201, 202, 

205-206. 
Crusades, the, 79-80. 
Culloden, battle of, 350. 

Danelagh, the, 18, 24, 51. 
Danes, the, 14-17. 35i 37, 5 1 - 
Declaration of Indulgence, 313, 314. 
Dispensers, the, 108, no. 
Disraeli, 416-417, 421. 
Dissenters, the, 299, 307, 314-315, 

321. 
Dover, treaty of, 305. 
Dunbar, battle of, 289. 



Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, 
34, 36- 

Edgar, the child, 44, 47, 49, 51 ; the 

peaceful, 34, 40. 
Edgehill, battle of, 281-282. 
Edington, battle of, 23. 
Edmund Ironside, 39-40- 
Education, 12-13, 19, 31, 34, 125, 

188-189, 191-194, 404, 417. 
Edward, the Black Prince, n 7-1 18, 

120, 121, 122, 123. 
Edward the Confessor, 41-42, 45. 
Edward the Elder, 33. 
Edward I, 91, 94, 95, 96, 145. 
Edward II, 106, 109-110. 
Edward III, 113. 
Edward IV, 167, 169-170, 172, 173- 

174- 
Edward V, 174-175, 177. 
Edward VI, 204, 207-208, 214, 215. 
Edward VII, 423. 
Edward, Prince, 161, 166. 
Egbert, io, 18. 
Egypt, 411. 

Eleanor, Queen, 80, 82, 83. 
Elizabeth, 204, 218, 222-225, 2 45i 

247-249- 
Ethelred, 36, 39. 
Evesham, battle of, 95. 
Exclusion Bill, 308, 309. 

Fawkes, Guy, 254-256. 

Feudal relations, 54. 

Fire, the great, 302. 

Five-mile Act, the, 299, 301. 

Flodden Field, battle of, 187. 

Forced loans, 262. 

Fortification, xxv, 21, 24, 33, 49, 169. 

Fox, Charles, 368, 373, 374, 377- 

France, Edward's claim to crown cf, 
115; wars with, 76-77, 80-81, 82- 
83, 86, 89, 1 1 3-1 2 1, 153-150, 
325-326, 327, 329, 331, 33^ 370, 

378, 379- 
French Revolution, the, 376-378. 
Friars, the, 90. 

Gaunt, John of, 122. 
Gaveston, Piers, 106-108. 



Index 



111 



George I, 336, 337, 338. 
George II, 338, 341-342. 
George III, 359-3 61 , 3 6 5, 3 66 -37°, 

373. 398. 
George IV, 398, 399. 
Ghent, treaty of, 388. 
Gibraltar, 332, 367. 
Gladstone, 407-408, 409, 415, 416, 

418, 420, 421. 
Glencoe, massacre of, 323. 
Godwin, Earl, 42-43. 
Grand Remonstrance, the, 279. 
Great Council, the, 56. 
Grenville, George, 363, 364. 
Grey, Lady Jane, 215-216. 
Gunpowder Plot, the, 254-256. 

Hampden, John, 269-272, 278, 282, 

283. 
Hanover, House of, 333, 400. 
Harold and Harthacanute, 41. 
Harold, Earl, 43-45, 47. 
Hasting, 24-27. 
Hastings, battle of, 47. 
Henry I, 62. 

Henry II, 66, 68-69, 77-78. 
Henry III, 89, 91-92. 
Henry IV, 145, 149-150, 152. 
Henry V, 152, 155. 
Henry VI, 159, 161, 170. 
Henry VII, 173, 177, 179. 
Henry VIII, 183-185, 199-200, 206. 
Hereward the Wake, 52. 
Home Rule, 377, 420-421, 429. 

Independents, 284, 285. 
India, 350-352, 356-357, 375, 412- 
413; East India Company, 242, 

347, 4i3- 
Ireland, xvii, 4, 8, 11, 22, 42, 43, 51, 
52, 75, in, 113, 246-247, 268, 
276-278, 283, 288-289, 321-322, 
380-381, 406, 419-420. 

Jacobites, 326-327, 338-340, 347- 

35°; 

Jamaica, 294, 401. 
James I, 250-254. 
James II, 310, 311, 313-314, 3*7> 
318, 321-322. 



James Stuart, the Old Pretender, 

316, 327, 336. 
Jameson's Raid, 423. 
Jeffreys, Judge, 311-313. 
Jews, in England, 59-60, 97, 398. 
John, King, 78, 81-82, 89. 
Jury, trial by, 71. 
Jutes, the, 8, 18. 

Lancaster, House of, 149. 

Land Purchase Act, 420, 421-422. 

Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canter- 
bury, 56. 

Langland, William, 124. 

Langton, Stephen, 85, 86. 

Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, 
269-270, 275-276. 

Laws, xxiv, 28, 56; labor, 389-390, 
395-396, 417, 418. 

Lexington, battle of, 367. 

Liberal Party, 395, 401, 407, 409, 
416, 417, 424, 426. 

Limerick, treaty of, 332. 

Lollards, the, 123, 134. 

London, xxii, 21, 26, 39, 43, 49, 59, 
65, 66, 129-131, 137-139, 145- 
146, 161, 165, 166, 167, 171, 172, 
280, 281, 408-409, 417. 

Londonderry, siege of, 322. 

Lords, House of, 99, 290, 396, 429. 

Lucy, Richard de, 70, 77. 

Manufactures, xxii, n, 32, 127-128, 

2 4i, 391-393- 
Margaret, Queen, 161, 165, 173. 
Marston Moor, battle of, 283. 
Mary, Queen, 196, 216-217, 219, 

221. 
Mary Stuart, 212, 226-231, 236-237. 
Matilda, Queen, 63-64, 65. 
Methodists, the, 342-344. 
Mines, xxvi-xxvii, 394, 395. 
Monasteries, 12-13, 31, 200-201, 

202-203. 
Monmouth's Rebellion, 310-312. 
More, Sir Thomas, 193-194, 203- 

204. 

Napoleon Bonaparte, 379, 382, 383, 
384, 385, 386. 



IV 



Index 



Naseby, battle of, 284. 

Navy, the British, 21, 25, 34, 290, 

3°4, 354, 3 8 7- 
Nelson, Admiral, 379-380, 384. 
Nile, battle of the, 380. 
Normandy, 44-45, 53, 63, 69, 80-81, 

82. 
Norman kings, the, 64. 
Northampton, battle of, 165. 
North, Lord, 365, 367-368, 370, 371. 

Oates, Titus, 308. 
O'Connor, Feargus, 408-409. 

Paris, peace of, 357. 

Parliament, 98, 108, 119, 167, 186, 

200, 205, 219, 233, 257, 261, 262- 

264, 265, 266, 270, 272, 273, 274, 

279, 280, 283, 296, 299, 307, 364, 

419, 421, 426, 429, 432. 
Parliament, Cavalier, 299, 300-302, 

3°5- 
Parliament, Rump, 287, 288, 290, 

291. 
Parnell, Charles Stuart, 420. 
Peasants' Revolt, 13 -143. 
Pelham, Duke of Newcastle, 346. 
Petition of Right, 265. 
Philip II, 217, 219, 221, 224, 225, 

231-232, 235, 237, 240. 
Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, 354, 

355, 3 6o ~3 61 , 3 6 4-365, 3 68 , 37°- 

37* ■ 
Pitt, William, the Younger, 371, 

374-375, 382, 385. 
Plague, the Great (1665), 301. 
Plantagenet kings, 68, 69, 89. 
Plassey, battle of, 357. 
Poictiers, battle of, 120. 
Pope, the, 11, 40, 76, 85, 86, 196, 

198, 206, 216, 219, 224. 
Presbyterians, 253, 272, 283, 285, 

289. 
Preston, battle of, 285. 
Protestantism, 195, 196, 201-202, 

207, 219-220, 225, 226, 232. 
Provisions of Oxford,-^, 94. 
Puritans, the, 233, 253-254, 262, 

267, 270, 276, 282, 296, 298, 299, 

301. 



Pym, John, 273, 274, 276, 278, 283 
284. 

Radical Party, 396-397. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 245, 258-259. 

Reform Act (1832), 319; (1866), 

416; (1884), 417- 
Relations between Great Britain 

and the United States, 434-435. 
Richard I, 77, 78, 80, 81. 
Richard II, 123, 144, 147. 
Richard III, 175-177. 
Roman Britain, 199-202. 
Roundheads, the, 279, 281, 283. 
Rupert, Prince, 281, 283, 284. 

St. Albans, battle of (1), 162; 

(2) 166. 
St. Vincent, battle of, 379. 
Salisbury, Lord, 421. 
Saratoga, battle of, 370. 
Saxon kings, 19, 47. 
Saxons, the, 8-9, 10-11, 16. 
Scone, Stone of Destiny, 102, 

104. 
Scotland, 4, 8, 34, 35, 41, 42, 49, 5 1 . 

52, 61, 65, 69, 76-77, 100-105, 

110-112, 151, 152, 166, 187, 211- 

213, 227, 229, 272-273, 276, 285, 

288, 319-320, 334. 
Sedgemoor, battle of, 311. 
Serfs, 57-59, I28 > I 3 2 » 1 33> x 43- 
Seven Years' War, 349-35°, 354, 

356. 
Simnel, Lambert, 181. 
Simon de Montfort, 93, 95. 
Six Articles, the, 206. 
Slave-trade, the, 284, 335, 375, 40°- 

401. 
Sluys, battle of, 115. 
Spain, England's relations with, 217, 

219, 224-225, 231-240, 258-260J 

327-329, 331, 344-345- 
Stamford Bridge, battle of, 46. 
Stamp Act, the, 364, 365. 
Steamboat, 392-393. 
Stephen, King, 64-65, 67. 
Stirling, battle of, 103-104. 
Stone Age, new, xix-xxi. 
Stuart kings, 252. 



Index 



Suffrage, 340, 399, 4°7» 408-409, 

416, 417-418. 
Swegen, 37, 38, 39. 

Test Act, 307, 335. 
Tewkesbury, battle of, 173. 
Toleration Act, 321. 
Tory Party, 308, 335-33°. 33^ 3°°. 

397, 4i6. 
Tostig, 43-44, 46^ 
Towns, 59, 80. 
Towton Field, battle of, 168. 
Trades-unions, 391-392. 
Trafalgar, battle of, 383. 
Transvaal, the, 423. 
Tribal system, the, xxiv, 9-10. 
Troyes, treaty of, 155. 
Tudor kings, 183. 
Turko-Russian War, 411-412. 
Tyler, Wat, 136, 138, 141. 

Ulster right, the, 420. 
Utrecht, peace of, 335, 345. 

Versailles, treaty of, 372. 
Victoria, Queen, 404-405, 423. 
Vienna, peace of, 386-387. 
Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, 257, 
260, 262, 264. 

Wakefield, battle of, 166. 
Wales, 4, 8, 26, 33, 34, 35, 4i, 42, 51, 
52, 76, 100, in, 113, 151, 152. 



Wallace, William, 102. 
Wallingford, treaty of, 66, 69. 
Walpole, Robert, 339-340, 341-342, 

345-346. 
Warbeck, Perkin, 1 81-182. 
Warwick, Richard, Earl of, 162-165, 

170, 172. 
Waterloo, battle of, 386. 
Wedmore, treaty of, 24. 
Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, 385- 

386, 387, 409. 
Wentworth, Thomas, Lord Staf- 
ford, 269, 271, 272-273. 
Wesley, John and Charles, 343. 
Whig Party, 309, 33°~33 I > 334, 343. 

360-361, 369. 
William I, 45, 47, 54, 57. 
William II, 60, 61. 
William III, 307, 315, 316, 318, 329; 

and Mary, 321, 326. 
William IV, 399, 404. 
Witenagemot, the, 28, 29, 37, 38, 39, 

41, 43, 44, 5°- 
Wolfe, James, 355. 
Wolsey, Cardinal, 185-186, 198. 
Worcester, battle of, 290. 
Wyatt's Rebellion, 218. 
Wyclif, John, 123. 

York, House of, 149. 

York, Richard of, 161, 163, 

166. 
Yorktown, surrender at, 371. 



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